2025-10-09 13:14:45: reorganize the file tree
doc: R Abnormal Psychology/Assessment of Mental Health Problems.md Abnormal Psychology/Causes of Abnormal Behavior.md Abnormal Psychology/Historical and Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior.md Abnormal Psychology/Introduction to Abnormal Psychology.md Abnormal Psychology/Stress.md Social Psychology/Aggression.md Social Psychology/Altruism.md Social Psychology/Attitudes.md Social Psychology/Behaviors in Group.md Social Psychology/Chinese Social Psychology.md Social Psychology/Compliance, Conformity, and Obedience.md Social Psychology/Interpersonal Attraction.md Social Psychology/Introduction & Research Methods.md Social Psychology/Persuasion.md Social Psychology/Prejudice.md Social Psychology/Social Cognition.md Social Psychology/Social perception.md, M BSc(Hons) Psychology/PSYC11411 Individual Differences in Mental Health and Wellbeing/Week 2.md
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# 3. Assessment of Mental Health Problems
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---
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Course: PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology
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---
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## Introduction to Basic Elements in Assessment
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## 1. Introduction to Basic Elements in Assessment
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Interaction of **Importance of trust and rapport** and **Impact on assessment** process.
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### Identification of presenting problem
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### 1.1. Identification of presenting problem
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- Situational or pervasive?
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- Duration?
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@@ -13,13 +15,13 @@ Interaction of **Importance of trust and rapport** and **Impact on assessment**
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- How does problem impact social roles?
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- Does problem match any DSM-5 disorder criteria?
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### Advantage of classification of presenting problem
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### 1.2. Advantage of classification of presenting problem
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- Treatment planning
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- Knowledge of range of diagnostic problems
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- Insurance payment
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### Good assessment includes
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### 1.3. Good assessment includes
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- social history noting:
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- Personality factors
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@@ -28,7 +30,7 @@ Interaction of **Importance of trust and rapport** and **Impact on assessment**
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- May determine assessment techniques
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- Does not limit clinician to one type of assessment
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### Dynamic formulation
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### 1.4. Dynamic formulation
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Describes the current situation but also includes hypotheses about what is driving the person to behave in maladaptive ways.
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@@ -36,29 +38,29 @@ Describes the current situation but also includes hypotheses about what is drivi
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- Decisions about treatment are made collaboratively with the consent and approval of the individual.
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- Assessment may involve the coordinated use of physical, psychological, and environmental procedures.
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### Psychological Assessments are
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### 1.5. Psychological Assessments are
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- Reliable
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- Valid
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- Standardized
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## Assessment of the Physical Conditions
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## 2. Assessment of the Physical Conditions
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### General physical examination
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### 2.1. General physical examination
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Many psychological problems have physical components either as
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- Causal factors
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- Symptom patterns
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### Neurological examination
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### 2.2. Neurological examination
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- **EEG:** graphical record of brain’s electrical activity
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- **CAT scan & MRI:** images of brain structures that may be damaged or diseased
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- **PET scan:** metabolic activity of specific compounds
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- **fMRI:** mapping psychological activity to specific regions in the brain
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### Neuro-psychological examination
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### 2.3. Neuro-psychological examination
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- Involves use of expanding array of testing devices
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- Measures cognitive, perceptual, and motor performance
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@@ -72,30 +74,30 @@ Many psychological problems have physical components either as
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- **Speech Sounds Perception Test:** Identify spoken words
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- **Finger Oscillation Task:** Speed
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## Psychosocial Assessment
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## 3. Psychosocial Assessment
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### Assessment Interviews
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### 3.1. Assessment Interviews
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- Face-to-face interaction
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- Structured interviews
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- Unstructured interviews
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### Clinical Observation of Behavior
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### 3.2. Clinical Observation of Behavior
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- Clinical observation in natural environments
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- Clinical observations in therapeutic or medical settings
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- Self-monitoring
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### Psychological Tests
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### 3.3. Psychological Tests
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#### Intelligence tests
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#### 3.3.1. Intelligence tests
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- WISC-IV(children); WAISIV (adults)
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- Stanford-Binet
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#### Personality tests
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#### 3.3.2. Personality tests
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##### Projective personality tests
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##### 3.3.2.1. Projective personality tests
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- Unstructured stimuli are presented
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- Meaning or structure projected onto stimuli
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@@ -107,19 +109,19 @@ Many psychological problems have physical components either as
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- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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- Sentence Completion Test
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##### Objective personality tests
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##### 3.3.2.2. Objective personality tests
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Examples: NEO-PI, MMPI-2
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Objective personality tests offer several advantages, such as standardization, efficiency, and ease of administration, but also have limitations, including limited depth, potential response distortion, and cultural bias.
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## The Integration of Assessment Data
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## 4. The Integration of Assessment Data
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- Developing integrated, coherent working model
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- Utilizing individual or team approach
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- Identifying definitive picture vs. discrepancie
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### Ethical Issues in Assessment
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### 4.1. Ethical Issues in Assessment
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- Potential cultural bias
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- Theoretical orientation of clinician
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@@ -127,14 +129,14 @@ Objective personality tests offer several advantages, such as standardization, e
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- Insufficient validation
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- Inaccurate data or premature evaluation
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## Classifying Abnormal Behavior
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## 5. Classifying Abnormal Behavior
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- Classification involves attempts to delineate meaningful sub-varieties of maladaptive behavior.
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- Classification makes it possible to communicate about particular clusters of abnormal behavior in agreed-on and relatively precise ways.
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- Classification of some kind is a necessary first step toward introducing order into our discussion of the nature, causes, and treatment of such behavior.
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- Classification enables the clarification of insurance issues.
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### Differing Models of Classification
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### 5.1. Differing Models of Classification
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Three basic approaches include:
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@@ -147,29 +149,29 @@ to absolutely impaired functioning
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a conceptual entity depicts an idealized combination of
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characteristics, some of which the patient may not have
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### Formal Diagnostic Classification of Mental Disorders
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### 5.2. Formal Diagnostic Classification of Mental Disorders
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- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
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- International Classification of Disease (ICD-10)
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#### Definition criteria based on:
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#### 5.2.1. Definition criteria based on:
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- Symptoms (subjective)
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- Signs (objective)
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#### The DSM-5
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#### 5.2.2. The DSM-5
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- More comprehensive and more subtypes of disorders
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- Allows for gender related differences in diagnosis
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- Provides structured interview regarding cultural influences
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#### Problem of diagnostic labeling
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#### 5.2.3. Problem of diagnostic labeling
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- Allows label capturing more than a behavioral pattern
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- Creates assumptions among clinicians
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- Creates social identity (stigma)
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#### Diagnostic Interviews
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#### 5.2.4. Diagnostic Interviews
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- Unstructured:
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- Freewheeling
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@@ -1,23 +1,22 @@
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# 2. Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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## Risk Factors and Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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## 1. Risk Factors and Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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- A **necessary cause** (X) is a condition that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur.
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- A **sufficient cause** of a disorder is a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder.
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- A **contributory cause** is one that increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur.
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### Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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### 1.1. Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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- **Distal risk factors** are causal factors occurring relatively early in life that may not show their effects for many years.
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- **Proximal (immediate) risk factors** are factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder.
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### Feedback and Bidirectionality in Abnormal Behavior
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### 1.2. Feedback and Bidirectionality in Abnormal Behavior
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In the study of abnormal psychology, it can be challenging to determine with certainty which conditions are causes and which are effects due to the complex and bidirectional nature of mental health disorders.
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### Diathesis-Stress Models
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### 1.3. Diathesis-Stress Models
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Combination of diathesis and stress to cause disorder.
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@@ -26,7 +25,7 @@ Combination of diathesis and stress to cause disorder.
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### Protective factors
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### 1.4. Protective factors
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Stronger Resilience with:
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@@ -34,23 +33,23 @@ Stronger Resilience with:
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- Exposure to stressful experiences that are dealt with successfully
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- Emotional intelligence
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## Perspectives to Understand the Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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## 2. Perspectives to Understand the Causes of Abnormal Behavior
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### The Biological Perspective
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### 2.1. The Biological Perspective
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Four categories of biological factors relevant to maladaptive behavior.
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#### Genetic vulnerabilities
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#### 2.1.1. Genetic vulnerabilities
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Heredity is important predisposing contributory cause for number of disorders.
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##### The Relationship of Genotypes to Phenotypes
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##### 2.1.1.1. The Relationship of Genotypes to Phenotypes
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**Genotype:** Total genetic endowment.
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**Phenotype:** Observed structural and functional characteristics.
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##### Methods for Studying Genetic Influences
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##### 2.1.1.2. Methods for Studying Genetic Influences
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**Traditional methods:**
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- Linkage analysis
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- Association studies
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#### Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
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#### 2.1.2. Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
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Subtle deficiencies of brain function are rarely implicated in mental disorders.
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@@ -73,7 +72,7 @@ The Developmental Systems Approach
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#### Neuro-transmitter & hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS
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#### 2.1.3. Neuro-transmitter & hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS
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**Neurotransmitter imbalances:**
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- Pituitary releases ACTH, which stimulates cortical part of the adrenal gland, produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol
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- Cortisol provides negative feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease their release of CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of adrenaline and cortisol
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#### Temperament
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#### 2.1.4. Temperament
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**Temperament:**
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@@ -112,9 +111,9 @@ Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
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- Activity level
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- Attentional persistence and effortful control
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### The Psychological Perspective
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### 2.2. The Psychological Perspective
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#### Psychodynamic
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#### 2.2.1. Psychodynamic
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**Freud** theorized that a person’s behavior results from interaction of:
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- Object-relations theory
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- Interpersonal perspective
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#### Behavioral
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#### 2.2.2. Behavioral
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- Classical Conditioning
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- Operant Conditioning
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- Generalization and Discrimination
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- Observational Learning
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#### Cognitive-Behavioral
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#### 2.2.3. Cognitive-Behavioral
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- **Schema:** Underlying representation of knowledge that guides current processing of information
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- **Attributions:** Process of assigning causes to things that happen
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- The way we interpret events and experiences determines our emotional reactions to them.
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- Clinicians use a variety of techniques designed to alter a client’s negative cognitive biases.
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### The Social Perspective
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### 2.3. The Social Perspective
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Factors with detrimental effects on a child’s socioemotional development.
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#### Early deprivation or trauma
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#### 2.3.1. Early deprivation or trauma
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- Depriving essential resources
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- Institutionalization
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- Neglect and abuse at home
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- Separation from parents
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#### Problems in parenting style
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#### 2.3.2. Problems in parenting style
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A parent–child relationship is always bidirectional:
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Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more children at heightened risk for a wide range of developmental difficulties.
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#### Marital discord & divorce
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#### 2.3.3. Marital discord & divorce
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**Long-standing marital discord:**
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@@ -178,34 +177,34 @@ Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more child
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- Delinquency
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- Lower educational attainment
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#### Low Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment
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#### 2.3.4. Low Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment
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In our society, the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of mental and physical disorders.
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- Children and adolescents from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families tend to have more psychological problems.
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- Studies have repeatedly found unemployment to be associated with enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology.
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#### Maladaptive peer relation-ships
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#### 2.3.5. Maladaptive peer relation-ships
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- Peer exclusion or abuse
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- Proactive and reactive aggression in bullying
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- Cyberbullying
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#### Prejudice and Discrimination in Race, Gender, and Ethnicity
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#### 2.3.6. Prejudice and Discrimination in Race, Gender, and Ethnicity
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Increased prevalence of certain mental disorders may be related to:
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- Prejudice against minority groups and women
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- Perceived discrimination and self-esteem
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### The Cultural Perspective
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### 2.4. The Cultural Perspective
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**Cultural context of behavior:**
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- Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
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- Culture: Over-and Undercontrolled Behavior
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#### Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
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#### 2.4.1. Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
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**Universality of some disorders:**
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@@ -216,7 +215,7 @@ Increased prevalence of certain mental disorders may be related to:
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- Which disorders develop
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- Prevalence, course
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#### Culture: Over- and Undercontrolled Problem
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#### 2.4.2. Culture: Over- and Undercontrolled Problem
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**Undercontrolled problem:**
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@@ -1,17 +1,19 @@
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# 1.2 Historical and Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
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---
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Course: PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology
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---
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## Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior
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## 1. Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior
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### Demonology, Gods, and Magic
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### 1.1. Demonology, Gods, and Magic
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1. Abnormal behavior attributed to demonic possession
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1. Differentiated good vs. bad spirits based on the individual’s symptoms
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2. Religious significance of possession
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2. Primary treatment for demonic possession was exorcism
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2. Differentiated good vs. bad spirits based on the individual’s symptoms
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3. Religious significance of possession
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4. Primary treatment for demonic possession was exorcism
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a. Various techniques including magic, prayer, incantation,
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noisemaking, and use of horrible-tasting concoctions
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### Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) Early Medical Concepts from Greek
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### 1.2. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) Early Medical Concepts from Greek
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- Proposing that mental disorders had natural
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causes
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@@ -19,9 +21,9 @@ causes
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or phrenitis
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- Associating dreams and personality
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### Early Philosophical Conceptions of Consciousness
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### 1.3. Early Philosophical Conceptions of Consciousness
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#### Plato (429-347 B.C.)
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#### 1.3.1. Plato (429-347 B.C.)
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- Viewed psychological phenomena as responses of the
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whole organism
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@@ -31,20 +33,20 @@ or phrenitis
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- Believed that mental disorders were in part divinely
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caused
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#### Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
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#### 1.3.2. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
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- Wrote lasting description of consciousness
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- “Thinking” as directed would eliminate pain,
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attain pleasure
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### Later Greek and Roman Thought
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### 1.4. Later Greek and Roman Thought
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- **Egyptian:** proposed wide range of therapeutic measures like dieting, massage, hydrotherapy, gymnastics and education.
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- **Greek:** proposed disease based on flow of atoms through the pores in the body.
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Galen from Greek (130-200) provided anatomy of nervous system.
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- **Roman:** medicine focused on comfort.
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### Early Views of Mental Disorders in China
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### 1.5. Early Views of Mental Disorders in China
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- One of earliest foci on mental disorders (2674 B.C.)
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- Emphasis on natural causes
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@@ -52,15 +54,15 @@ or phrenitis
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- Experienced brief “Dark Ages” that blamed supernatural causes (late 200-900 A.D.)
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- Incorporation of ideas from Western psychiatry in last 50 years
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### Views of Abnormality During the Middle Ages
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### 1.6. Views of Abnormality During the Middle Ages
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- **Middle East:** had scientific approach.
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- **Europe:** was plagued with mass madness.
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- Relating the mental illness with witchcraft, and treatment included exorcism
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## Toward Humanitarian Approaches
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## 2. Toward Humanitarian Approaches
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### The Resurgence of Scientific Questioning in Europe
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### 2.1. The Resurgence of Scientific Questioning in Europe
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**Renaissance:**
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@@ -68,14 +70,14 @@ or phrenitis
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Europe
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- Part of humanism movement
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### The Establishment of Early Asylums
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### 2.2. The Establishment of Early Asylums
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- First established in Sixteenth Century
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- “Madhouses”“Bedlam” storage places for the insane
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- Found throughout Europe; parts of U.S.
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- Aggressive treatment to restore “physical balance in body and brain”
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### Humanitarian Reform
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### 2.3. Humanitarian Reform
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- France:
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- Philippe Pinel (1745-1826)
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@@ -89,7 +91,7 @@ or phrenitis
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- Dorothy Dix (1802-1887): suitable hospitals were built
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#### The military’s role in mental health treatment:
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#### 2.3.1. The military’s role in mental health treatment:
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- American Civil War (1861-1865)
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- First mental health facility opened
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@@ -97,14 +99,14 @@ or phrenitis
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- Developed program of military psychiatry following FrancoPrussian War
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- Contributed to field of abnormal psychology
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### Nineteenth-Century Views of the Causes and Treatment of Mental Disorders
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### 2.4. Nineteenth-Century Views of the Causes and Treatment of Mental Disorders
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**Alienists (psychiatrists):**
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- Gained control of asylums
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- Emotional problems (“shattered nerves”) were caused by the expenditure of energy or by the depletion of bodily energies as a result of excesses in living
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### Changing Attitudes Toward Mental Health in the Early Twentieth Century
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### 2.5. Changing Attitudes Toward Mental Health in the Early Twentieth Century
|
||||
|
||||
**Clifford Beers (1876-1943):**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -112,7 +114,7 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
- Straitjacket was still widely used
|
||||
- Began campaign for reform
|
||||
|
||||
### Mental Hospital Care in the Twentieth Century
|
||||
### 2.6. Mental Hospital Care in the Twentieth Century
|
||||
|
||||
- 1940
|
||||
- Most mental hospitals inhumane and ineffective
|
||||
@@ -124,7 +126,7 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
- Community Health Services Act (develop outpatient psychiatric clinics, community consultations, and rehab programs)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
#### Deinstitutionalization Movement
|
||||
#### 2.6.1. Deinstitutionalization Movement
|
||||
|
||||
- Large numbers of mental hospital closures and shift to community-based residences
|
||||
- Global movement: Asia, Europe, U.S.
|
||||
@@ -132,9 +134,9 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
- Created problems for both patients and society as a whole
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
|
||||
## 3. The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
|
||||
|
||||
### The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
|
||||
### 3.1. The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
|
||||
|
||||
**Recent changes:**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -144,7 +146,7 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
3. Emergence of psychological causation views
|
||||
4. Experimental psychological research developments
|
||||
|
||||
### Biological Discoveries
|
||||
### 3.2. Biological Discoveries
|
||||
|
||||
1. Biological and anatomical factors recognized as underlying both physical and mental disorders
|
||||
2. Cure for general paresis (syphilis of the brain)
|
||||
@@ -152,21 +154,21 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
3. Mental disorders an illness based on brain pathology
|
||||
- Downside: removal of body parts, lobotomies
|
||||
|
||||
### The Development of a Classification System
|
||||
### 3.3. The Development of a Classification System
|
||||
|
||||
**Kraepelin:**
|
||||
|
||||
- Compendium der Psychiatrie (1883): forerunner to DSM
|
||||
- Specific types of mental disorders identified
|
||||
|
||||
### Emergence of psychological causation views
|
||||
### 3.4. Emergence of psychological causation views
|
||||
|
||||
#### Mesmerism:
|
||||
#### 3.4.1. Mesmerism:
|
||||
|
||||
- Diseases treated by “animal magnetism”
|
||||
- Source of heated discussion in early nineteenth century
|
||||
|
||||
#### Nancy School
|
||||
#### 3.4.2. Nancy School
|
||||
- Hypnotism and hysteria are related and due to suggestion
|
||||
- Hysteria, a form of self-hypnosis, could be caused and removed by hypnosis
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -174,7 +176,7 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
|
||||
- Are mental disorders caused by biological or psychological factors?
|
||||
|
||||
#### Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
|
||||
#### 3.4.3. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
|
||||
|
||||
- First major steps toward understanding psychological factors in
|
||||
mental disorders
|
||||
@@ -185,12 +187,12 @@ or phrenitis
|
||||
- Dream analysis
|
||||
- Emphasizes inner dynamics of unconscious motives
|
||||
|
||||
### Experimental psychological research developments
|
||||
### 3.5. Experimental psychological research developments
|
||||
- **Wilhelm Wundt:** First experimental psychological laboratory
|
||||
- **J. McKeen Cattell:** Wundt’s methods to U.S.
|
||||
- **Lightner Witmer:** First American psychological clinic
|
||||
|
||||
#### Behavioral perspective:
|
||||
#### 3.5.1. Behavioral perspective:
|
||||
|
||||
Role of learning in humanbehavior.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
|
||||
# 1.1 Introduction to Abnormal Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
### Course Objectives:
|
||||
### 1. Course Objectives:
|
||||
|
||||
This course aims at providing students with a survey of
|
||||
behavioral disorders in terms of the biological,
|
||||
@@ -11,7 +13,7 @@ disorders will be discussed, the primary emphasis will
|
||||
be put on the scientific study of these disorders from an
|
||||
empirical perspective
|
||||
|
||||
### Course Intended Learning Outcomes:
|
||||
### 2. Course Intended Learning Outcomes:
|
||||
|
||||
Describe and explain the symptomatology, etiology and
|
||||
therapy of various disorders introduced in the course
|
||||
@@ -1,21 +1,23 @@
|
||||
# 4. Stress
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
## What Is Stress?
|
||||
## 1. What Is Stress?
|
||||
|
||||
- External demands placed on an organism
|
||||
- Organism’s internal biological and psychological responses to such demands
|
||||
|
||||
### Behavioral Medicine
|
||||
### 1.1. Behavioral Medicine
|
||||
|
||||
Concerned with psychological factors that may predispose an individual to medical problems: Health psychology
|
||||
The effects of stress and other psychological factors in the development and maintenance of physical problems
|
||||
|
||||
### Stress and *DSM*
|
||||
### 1.2. Stress and *DSM*
|
||||
|
||||
- Significant component of multiple DSM diagnostic categories
|
||||
- DSM-5: Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
|
||||
|
||||
### Factors Predisposing a Person to Stress
|
||||
### 1.3. Factors Predisposing a Person to Stress
|
||||
|
||||
- Experience of crisis
|
||||
- Life changes
|
||||
@@ -23,7 +25,7 @@ The effects of stress and other psychological factors in the development and mai
|
||||
- Individual stress tolerance
|
||||
- Lack of external resources and social supports
|
||||
|
||||
### Characteristics of Stressors
|
||||
### 1.4. Characteristics of Stressors
|
||||
|
||||
Life changes, Crises, and Perception of benefits.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -43,7 +45,7 @@ Measuring Life Stress
|
||||
- Interview-based
|
||||
- Rates chronic and acute stress
|
||||
|
||||
### Resilience
|
||||
### 1.5. Resilience
|
||||
|
||||
Factors linked to resilience:
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -54,9 +56,9 @@ Factors linked to resilience:
|
||||
- Positive thinking
|
||||
- Self confidence
|
||||
|
||||
## Stress and Physical Health
|
||||
## 2. Stress and Physical Health
|
||||
|
||||
#### Allostatic load
|
||||
#### 2.1. Allostatic load
|
||||
|
||||
Biological cost of adapting to stress.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -64,7 +66,7 @@ Biological cost of adapting to stress.
|
||||
- Everyday forms of stress can also elevate risk for coronary heart disease and death
|
||||
- Mental stress raises blood pressure, migraine, and elevates epinephrine levels
|
||||
|
||||
#### The Stress Response
|
||||
#### 2.2. The Stress Response
|
||||
|
||||
Two of body’s systems respond when stressor is perceived:
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,3 +1,12 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYC11411 Individual Differences in Mental Health and Wellbeing
|
||||
---
|
||||
### Unit Structure
|
||||
|
||||
### Assessment
|
||||
|
||||
First Assignment:
|
||||
Week 7 Nov. 125h
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Descriptive and operational (Qualitative and quantitative) standard to classify, measure and scale disorders.
|
||||
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
|
||||
# 11. Aggression
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.0 Definition of Aggression
|
||||
## 1. Definition of Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
*Aggression is defined as intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -11,19 +11,19 @@ Aggression is a behavior and should be distinguished from feelings of anger.
|
||||
- Hostile aggression: stemming from feelings of anger with the goal of inflicting pain or injury
|
||||
- Instrumental aggression: a means to achieve some goal other than causing pain
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.1 Roots of Aggression
|
||||
## 2. Roots of Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
- **Biology** plays a role in human aggression.
|
||||
People injected testosterone become more aggressive (Moyer, 1983)
|
||||
reducing ability to control impulses.
|
||||
- **Family environment** also greatly influences the expression of aggression (Miles & Carey, 1997).
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.1.1 Social-cognitive learning theory
|
||||
### 2.1. Social-cognitive learning theory
|
||||
|
||||
- A main mechanism that determines aggression is past learning (Miles & Carey, 1997)
|
||||
- As with other learned behaviors, aggression is influenced by both imitation and reinforcement
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.1.2 Freud
|
||||
### 2.2. Freud
|
||||
|
||||
*Freud suggested that we have an instinct (thanatos) to aggress.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -31,9 +31,9 @@ Evolutionary psychologists argue that physical aggression is genetically program
|
||||
To establish dominance over other males and secure the highest possible status.
|
||||
Aggress out of sexual jealousy to ensure that their mate is not having sex with other men, thereby ensuring their own paternity (Buss, 2004, 2005)
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.2 Social Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
## 3. Social Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.2.1 Provocation (挑衅)
|
||||
### 3.1. Provocation (挑衅)
|
||||
|
||||
*Actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient, often because they are perceived as stemming from malicious intent.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ Can be verbal or physical attack.
|
||||
An “eye for an eye” reaction.
|
||||
We tend to reciprocate, especially if we are certain that the other person meant to harm us.
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.2.2 Frustration (挫折)
|
||||
### 3.2. Frustration (挫折)
|
||||
|
||||
*Anything that block the goal attainment.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -58,21 +58,21 @@ Dollard et al. (1939) proposed the famous frustration-aggression hypothesis
|
||||
The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.
|
||||
Now we know aggression is definitely NOT an automatic response to frustration.
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.2.3 Displaced Aggression
|
||||
### 3.3. Displaced Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
*When aggressive feelings cannot be expressed against the cause of the anger, we may engage in displaced aggression against a substitute target (Dollard et al., 1939).*
|
||||
|
||||
The more similar a target is to the original source, the stronger the aggressive impulse, but also the greater the anxiety that is felt about aggressing.
|
||||
Displaced aggression is most likely to be directed towards targets that are weaker & less dangerous.
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.2.4 Norms
|
||||
### 3.4. Norms
|
||||
|
||||
*Social Norms are crucial in determining what aggressive habits are learned.*
|
||||
|
||||
e.g. norms for children of two sexes.
|
||||
e.g. wars, sports.
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.2.5 Media
|
||||
### 3.5. Media
|
||||
|
||||
*Various kinds of evidence are able to link media violence to aggressive behavior.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -82,9 +82,9 @@ e.g. wars, sports.
|
||||
3. **Priming **
|
||||
Hostile thoughts come to mind more readily, and this in turn, can increase the likelihood that a person will engage in overt aggression (Anderson, 1997)
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.3 Cognitive Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
## 4. Cognitive Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.3.1 Schema
|
||||
### 4.1. Schema
|
||||
|
||||
*Reinforcement, imitation, and assumptions about others’ motives may all combine to produce a schema for aggression.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -93,16 +93,16 @@ Media may contribute to the development and maintenance of these schemas (Huesma
|
||||
|
||||
e.g. scripts for aggression
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.3.2 Attribution
|
||||
### 4.2. Attribution
|
||||
|
||||
For an attack or frustration to produce anger and aggression, it must be perceived as intended to harm.
|
||||
|
||||
Attributions of controllability affect this assessment.
|
||||
Imagine someone steps on your heel and when you look back you see…
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.4 Situational Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
## 5. Situational Determinants of Aggression
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.4.1 Heat
|
||||
### 5.1. Heat
|
||||
|
||||
*Psychologists now believe that heat does increase aggression, but only up to a point (Bell, 1980; Rule & others, 1987). *
|
||||
When people get hot, they become irritable and may be more likely to lash out at others (especially when they have been provoked).
|
||||
@@ -110,9 +110,9 @@ When people get hot, they become irritable and may be more likely to lash out at
|
||||
*Beyond a certain level, aggression may actually decline as temperatures rise.*
|
||||
People may become so uncomfortable and fatigued that they are actually less likely to engage in overt aggression.
|
||||
|
||||
## 11.5 Reducing Aggressive Behavior
|
||||
## 6. Reducing Aggressive Behavior
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.5.1 Catharsis
|
||||
### 6.1. Catharsis
|
||||
|
||||
*Catharsis refers to Freud’s idea that the release of anger would reduce subsequent aggression.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ People may become so uncomfortable and fatigued that they are actually less like
|
||||
- Attacking inanimate objects cannot (Bushman et al., 1999).
|
||||
- Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts and behaviors (Anderson & Dill, 2000).
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.5.2 Punishment
|
||||
### 6.2. Punishment
|
||||
|
||||
Fear of punishment reduces aggression only when the punishment is:
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ Problems
|
||||
- Generate anger and aggression (Sears et al., 1957)
|
||||
- Spark counter-aggression or revenge
|
||||
|
||||
### 11.5.3 Behavior
|
||||
### 6.3. Behavior
|
||||
|
||||
- **Exposure to non-aggressive models **
|
||||
“Unlearn” aggressive behavior.
|
||||
@@ -1,27 +1,27 @@
|
||||
# 10. Altruism
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
|
||||
## 10.1. Definitions
|
||||
## 1. Definitions
|
||||
|
||||
***Prosocial Behavior**: Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person*.
|
||||
|
||||
***Altruism**: The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper*.
|
||||
|
||||
## 10.3 Why do we help?
|
||||
## 2. Why do we help?
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.3.1 A decision-making perspective (Latané & Darley, 1970)
|
||||
### 2.1. A decision-making perspective (Latané & Darley, 1970)
|
||||
|
||||
*People decide whether or not to offer assistance based on a variety of perceptions and evaluations.*
|
||||
Help is offered only if a person answers “yes” at each step.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
#### Notice the event
|
||||
#### 2.1.1. Notice the event
|
||||
|
||||
When we are distracted or in a hurry, we don’t help.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Correctly interpreting an event as an emergency
|
||||
#### 2.1.2. Correctly interpreting an event as an emergency
|
||||
|
||||
*Cues that lead us to perceive an event as an emergency (Shotland & Huston, 1979).*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ When we are distracted or in a hurry, we don’t help.
|
||||
> Alternative condition: without verbal cues that the victim was injured
|
||||
> Help was offered only about 30% of the time.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Deciding that it is your responsibility to help
|
||||
#### 2.1.3. Deciding that it is your responsibility to help
|
||||
|
||||
*Being given responsibility increases helping.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ When we are distracted or in a hurry, we don’t help.
|
||||
> Control: 20%
|
||||
> Experimental: 95%
|
||||
|
||||
#### Deciding that you have the knowledge or skills to act
|
||||
#### 2.1.4. Deciding that you have the knowledge or skills to act
|
||||
|
||||
In emergencies, decisions are made under high stress and sometimes even personal danger.
|
||||
Well-intentioned helpers may not be able to give assistance or may mistakenly do the wrong thing.
|
||||
@@ -53,13 +53,13 @@ Well-intentioned helpers may not be able to give assistance or may mistakenly do
|
||||
> Crammer et al. (1988)
|
||||
> When there is an accident and possible: injury, a registered nurse is more likely to help than non-medical people.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Weighing the Costs and Benefits
|
||||
#### 2.1.5. Weighing the Costs and Benefits
|
||||
|
||||
At least in some situations, people weigh the costs and benefits of helping
|
||||
People sometimes consider the consequences of NOT helping.
|
||||
However, in other cases, helping may be impulsive and determined by basic emotions and values rather than by expected profits.
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.3.2 A sociocultural perspective
|
||||
### 2.2. A sociocultural perspective
|
||||
|
||||
*Human societies have gradually evolved beliefs or social norms that promote the welfare of the group.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -71,9 +71,9 @@ However, in other cases, helping may be impulsive and determined by basic emotio
|
||||
- **Norm of Social Justice**
|
||||
Maintain equitable distribution of rewards.
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.3.3 A learning perspective
|
||||
### 2.3. A learning perspective
|
||||
|
||||
#### We learn to be helpful through reinforcement.
|
||||
#### 2.3.1. We learn to be helpful through reinforcement.
|
||||
|
||||
Children help and share more when they are reinforced for their helpful behavior.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -82,21 +82,21 @@ Children help and share more when they are reinforced for their helpful behavior
|
||||
> (Dispositional praise) ‘You are a very nice and helpful person’ vs. (Global praise)‘That was a nice and helpful thing to do’.
|
||||
> Dispositional praise appears to be more effective than global praise.
|
||||
|
||||
#### We learn to be helpful through observation.
|
||||
#### 2.3.2. We learn to be helpful through observation.
|
||||
|
||||
Children and adults exposed to helpful models are more helpful.
|
||||
For children, helping may depend largely on reinforcement and modeling to shape behavior, but as they get older, helping may be internalized as a value, independent of external incentives.
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.3.4 Attribution
|
||||
### 2.4. Attribution
|
||||
|
||||
*We are more likely to be empathetic and to perceive someone as deserving help if we believe that the cause of the problem is outside the person’s control.*
|
||||
|
||||
> Myer & Mulherin (1980)
|
||||
> College students would be more willing to lend rent money to an acquaintance if the need arose due to illness rather than laziness.
|
||||
|
||||
## 10.4 Who helps?
|
||||
## 3. Who helps?
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.4.1 Mood and Helping
|
||||
### 3.1. Mood and Helping
|
||||
|
||||
*People are more willing to help when they are in a good mood.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ For children, helping may depend largely on reinforcement and modeling to shape
|
||||
- Music: have listened to soothing music (Fried & Berkowitz, 1979)
|
||||
- Odor: smelled cookies or coffee (Baron, 1997)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Mood-maintenance hypothesis
|
||||
#### 3.1.1. Mood-maintenance hypothesis
|
||||
|
||||
*“Doing good” enables us to continue to feel good.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ For children, helping may depend largely on reinforcement and modeling to shape
|
||||
|
||||
> Only 20 minutes in one study (Isen, Clark, & Schwartz, 1976)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Negative moods sometimes lead to more helping
|
||||
#### 3.1.2. Negative moods sometimes lead to more helping
|
||||
|
||||
***Negative-state relief model** suggests that people may help as a way to make themselves feel better (Cialdini, Darby, & Vincent, 1973).*
|
||||
Helping made college students feel more cheerful and feel better about themselves (Williamson & Clark, 1989).
|
||||
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ Helping others may reduce their guilty feelings.
|
||||
Less likely to occur if a person is focused on themselves and their own needs
|
||||
e.g. during profound grief (e.g. Aderman & Berkowitz, 1983).
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.4.2 Empathy
|
||||
### 3.2. mpathy
|
||||
|
||||
*Empathy refers to feelings of sympathy and caring for others.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ The emotional reactions that are focused on or oriented toward other people and
|
||||
Occurs when we focus on the needs and the emotions of the victim.
|
||||
Fosters altruistic helping.
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.4.3 Personality Characteristics
|
||||
### 3.3. Personality Characteristics
|
||||
|
||||
There is no single type of “helpful person”.
|
||||
The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
@@ -144,9 +144,9 @@ The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
- People high in positive emotionality, empathy, and self-efficacy are most likely to be helpful
|
||||
- Influences how people react to particular situations, i.e. people who are more sympathetic to the victim in emergency situations respond faster
|
||||
|
||||
## 10.5 Whom do we help?
|
||||
## 4. Whom do we help?
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.5.1 Gender
|
||||
### 4.1. Gender
|
||||
|
||||
- Men are more likely to provide help to women in distress (e.g. Latané & Dabbs, 1975), especially when there is an audience.
|
||||
- Men offered more help to women while women are equally helpful to both sexes (Eagly & Crowley, 1986).
|
||||
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
> No difference between experimental and control
|
||||
> No difference between male or female research assistant
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.5.2 Physically attractive
|
||||
### 4.2. Physically attractive
|
||||
|
||||
> Benson, Karabenick, and Lerner (1976).
|
||||
> Subjects found a completed and ready-to-mail application to graduate school in a telephone booth at the airport
|
||||
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
> Attractive: 47%
|
||||
> Unattractive: 35%
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.5.3 Similarity
|
||||
### 4.3. Similarity
|
||||
|
||||
> Emswiller, Deaux, and Willits (1971)
|
||||
> Confederates dressed as a ‘hippie’ or ‘conservative’
|
||||
@@ -187,9 +187,9 @@ The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
> Fewer than half the students did the favor for those dressed differently from themselves
|
||||
> Two-thirds helped those dressed similarly
|
||||
|
||||
## 10.6 When do we help?
|
||||
## 5. When do we help?
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.6.1 Bystander effect
|
||||
### 5.1. Bystander effect
|
||||
|
||||
*The presence of other people makes it less likely that anyone will help a stranger in distress.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ The effect of personality on altruism
|
||||
> DV1: % of students left and helped
|
||||
> DV2: time they waited before acting
|
||||
|
||||
#### Why does the bystander effect occur?
|
||||
#### 5.1.1. Why does the bystander effect occur?
|
||||
|
||||
1. **Diffusion of responsibility **
|
||||
*The presence of other people makes each individual feel less personally responsible.*
|
||||
@@ -230,13 +230,13 @@ Assume the others ‘will do it’.
|
||||
> Group: 1st minute: 10%; 6th minute: 38%
|
||||
> The behavior of other bystanders can influence how we define the situation and react to it
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.6.2 Environmental Conditions
|
||||
### 5.2. Environmental Conditions
|
||||
People are more helpful to strangers when it’s pleasantly warm and sunny (Ahmed, 1979).
|
||||
|
||||
People are more likely to help strangers in small towns & cities than in big cities (Levine et al., 1994).
|
||||
What matters is current environmental setting, not the size of the hometown in which the person grew up.
|
||||
|
||||
### 10.6.3 Time pressure
|
||||
### 5.3. Time pressure
|
||||
|
||||
> Darley & Batson, 1973
|
||||
> Participants were students studying religion and were asked to give a short talk
|
||||
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
|
||||
# 4. Attitudes
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
*Our <u>evaluations</u> of any aspects of the social world (including people, objects and ideas).*
|
||||
Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond favorably or unfavorably to objects, people, and events
|
||||
|
||||
## 4.1 Attitudes
|
||||
## 1. Attitudes
|
||||
|
||||
**Three components of attitude:**
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.1.1 Affectively Based Attitude
|
||||
### 1.1. Affectively Based Attitude
|
||||
|
||||
*An attitude based more on people’s feelings and values.*
|
||||
Regarding the positive and negative feelings regarding the stimulus.
|
||||
@@ -17,14 +17,14 @@ People vote more with their hearts than their minds.
|
||||
|
||||
We feel strongly attracted to something (or a person), despite the negative belief about him/her (e.g. knowing that the person is a “bad influence”).
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.1.2 Behaviorally Based Attitude
|
||||
### 1.2. Behaviorally Based Attitude
|
||||
|
||||
*An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object.*
|
||||
Based on observations of how one behaviors toward an object.
|
||||
|
||||
Do you like Apple products? If you use many Apple products, you may think you really like this brand.
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.1.3 Cognitively Based Attitude
|
||||
### 1.3. Cognitively Based Attitude
|
||||
|
||||
*An attitude based on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -37,15 +37,15 @@ Implicit attitudes are rooted in people’s childhood experiences, while explici
|
||||
Exist outside of conscious awareness
|
||||
Test by Implicit Association Test (IAT)
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.1.4 Attitudes influence Cognitions
|
||||
### 1.4. Attitudes influence Cognitions
|
||||
|
||||
IAT: a test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g. Black/White, old/young; Asian/White) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g. the words honest or evil) reflecting unconscious (implicit) prejudices.
|
||||
People respond more quickly when white faces are paired with positive words and vice versa.
|
||||
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/education.html
|
||||
|
||||
## 4.2 Attitudes formation
|
||||
## 2. Attitudes formation
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.2.1 Social learning
|
||||
### 2.1. Social learning
|
||||
|
||||
*The process that we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people.*
|
||||
i.e. by interacting with others, or observing others’ behaviors (imitation)
|
||||
@@ -56,41 +56,41 @@ Social learning occurs in three processes:
|
||||
- Instrumental/operant conditioning (rewards)
|
||||
- Observational learning
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.2.2 Classical conditioning
|
||||
### 2.2. Classical conditioning
|
||||
|
||||
*A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus.*
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.2.3 Instrumental/operant conditioning
|
||||
### 2.3. Instrumental/operant conditioning
|
||||
|
||||
*A form of learning whereby a behavior followed by a positive response is more likely to be repeated.*
|
||||
|
||||
E.g. Insko (1965) showed that participants’ responses to an attitude survey were influenced by positive feedback on the responses they gave a week earlier.
|
||||
Reinforcing one’s attitudes with positive feedback means that the attitudes are more likely to survive and be expressed on other occasions.
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.2.4 Observational learning
|
||||
### 2.4. Observational learning
|
||||
|
||||
*A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.*
|
||||
|
||||
## 4.3 Attitudes predict deliberative behavior
|
||||
### 4.3.1 Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
|
||||
## 3. Attitudes predict deliberative behavior
|
||||
### 3.1. Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
|
||||
|
||||
Several factors, including subjective norms, attitudes towards the behavior and perceived behavioral control, determine behavioral intentions concerning the behavior, and, in turn, intentions strongly determine whether the behavior is performed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## 4.4 Why does action/behaviour affect our attitude?
|
||||
### 4.4.1 Cognitive dissonance
|
||||
## 4. Why does action/behaviour affect our attitude?
|
||||
### 4.1. Cognitive dissonance
|
||||
|
||||
*The discomfort that is caused when two cognitions conflict, or when our behavior conflicts with our attitudes.*
|
||||
Dissonance is most painful, and we are most motivated to reduce it, when one of the dissonant cognitions challenge our self-esteem (Aronson, 1969)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Three ways to reduce dissonance:
|
||||
#### 4.1.1. Three ways to reduce dissonance:
|
||||
|
||||
- Changing our behavior to make it consistent with the cognition/attitude.
|
||||
- Attempting to justify our behavior through changing one of the dissonant cognition/attitude.
|
||||
- Attempting to justify our behavior by adding new cognitions.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Less-leads-to-more effect
|
||||
#### 4.1.2. Less-leads-to-more effect
|
||||
|
||||
*Less reasons or rewards for an action often leads to greater attitude change.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ Effect of preconceptions on performance.
|
||||
Manipulation: \$1, \$20 or no lie.
|
||||
Results?
|
||||
|
||||
#### Insufficient Justification
|
||||
#### 4.1.3. Insufficient Justification
|
||||
*The less incentive one has for performing a counter-attitudinal behavior, the more dissonance is experienced.*
|
||||
Needs to reduce the dissonance internally Vs Overjustification effect.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ Children promised a reward for playing an interesting puzzle or toy
|
||||
3. The person has to *experience physiological arousal* – e.g. smoking causes anxiety as it could cause ill health
|
||||
4. The person has to *attribute the feeling of physiological arousal to the action itself* - e.g. smokers need to be able to link the feeling and the behaviour
|
||||
|
||||
#### Alternative strategies to resolve/reduce dissonance
|
||||
#### 4.1.4. Alternative strategies to resolve/reduce dissonance
|
||||
|
||||
- Change the behaviour to more consistent with our attitude.
|
||||
E.g. smoking fathers quit smoking.
|
||||
@@ -124,13 +124,13 @@ Children promised a reward for playing an interesting puzzle or toy
|
||||
- Deciding that the dissonance is not important.
|
||||
Smoking in the presence of children is not important.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Indirect methods to reduce dissonance
|
||||
#### 4.1.5. Indirect methods to reduce dissonance
|
||||
|
||||
**To restore positive self-evaluations:**
|
||||
*Self-affirmation – restoring positive self-evaluations that are threatened by the dissonance.*
|
||||
E.g. Smoking father does not focus on his smoking behavior; but a responsible father as he earns the living.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Dissonance can be a tool for beneficial changes in behavior
|
||||
#### 4.1.6. Dissonance can be a tool for beneficial changes in behavior
|
||||
|
||||
*Hypocrisy induction – The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior.*
|
||||
The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior.
|
||||
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ Group 1: students merely composed the arguments
|
||||
Group 2: after composing the arguments, the students were to recite them in front of a video camera and were told that the audience were high school students
|
||||
Highest dissonance: Group 2
|
||||
|
||||
### 4.4.2 Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)
|
||||
### 4.2. Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)
|
||||
|
||||
*When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer our attitudes from our behavior and the circumstances in which this behavior occurs.*
|
||||
e.g. You choose to eat oranges from a basket of seven kinds of fruit and somebody asks you how you feel about oranges.
|
||||
@@ -152,12 +152,12 @@ For 10 years the Cognitive dissonance theory was the only theoretical interpreta
|
||||
Self-perception theory and cognitive dissonance theory make similar predictions but for different reasons.
|
||||
Same prediction on Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1957) experiment.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Why the actions affect the attitudes?
|
||||
#### 4.2.1. Why the actions affect the attitudes?
|
||||
|
||||
- Cognitive dissonance theory – we justify our behavior to reduce the internal discomfort
|
||||
- Self-perception theory – we observe the behavior and make reasonable inferences about our attitude
|
||||
|
||||
#### Both theories may be correct:
|
||||
#### 4.2.2. Both theories may be correct:
|
||||
|
||||
- Self-perception theory seems more applicable when people are unfamiliar with the issues or the issues are vague, minor, or uninvolving
|
||||
- Cognitive dissonance theory seems more applicable to explaining people’s behavior concerning controversial, engaging, and enduring issues
|
||||
@@ -1,18 +1,18 @@
|
||||
# 8. Behaviors in Group
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
|
||||
## 8.1 What is group?
|
||||
## 1. What is group?
|
||||
|
||||
*Two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other.*
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.1.1 Why do people join groups?
|
||||
### 1.1. Why do people join groups?
|
||||
|
||||
- Allow us to accomplish objectives that would be more difficult to meet individually.
|
||||
- A substantial survival advantage to establishing bond with other people.
|
||||
- Help us define who we are (i.e. identity).
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.1.2 Behaviour in the Presence of others
|
||||
### 1.2. Behaviour in the Presence of others
|
||||
|
||||
- Any differences of your behavior when you are doing it alone and performing in front of others? (Singing in the bathroom Vs singing in public?).
|
||||
- The presence of others sometimes enhances and sometimes impairs an individual’s performance
|
||||
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ In summary: whether social facilitation or social loafing occurs depends on
|
||||
- Task complexity.
|
||||
- How much participants care about the outcome.
|
||||
|
||||
## 8.2 Social Facilitation
|
||||
## 2. Social Facilitation
|
||||
|
||||
*When people are in the presence of others and their individual performances can be evaluated, the tendency to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ In summary: whether social facilitation or social loafing occurs depends on
|
||||
> Poor players: accuracy dropped from 36 to 25%.
|
||||
> Good players: accuracy rose from 71 to 80%.
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.2.1 Drive Theory of Social Facilitation/Inhibition (ZAJONC ET AL., 1969)
|
||||
### 2.1. Drive Theory of Social Facilitation/Inhibition (ZAJONC ET AL., 1969)
|
||||
|
||||
- **Mere presence:**
|
||||
The presence of others make us more alert. The alertness causes mild arousal.
|
||||
@@ -56,21 +56,21 @@ In summary: whether social facilitation or social loafing occurs depends on
|
||||
Social facilitation and social inhibition occur when a person’s performance can be evaluated both by the individual and by observers.
|
||||
What would happen if the contributions of each member of a group could not be evaluated individually?
|
||||
|
||||
## 8.3 Social Loafing
|
||||
## 3. Social Loafing
|
||||
|
||||
*When people are in the presence of others and their individual performances cannot be evaluated, the tendency to perform worse on simple or unimportant tasks but better on complex or important tasks.*
|
||||
|
||||
When an individual’s contribution to a collective activity cannot be evaluated, individuals often work less hard than they would alone.
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.3.1 Collective Effort Model (CEM) (Karau and Williams; 1993, 1995)
|
||||
### 3.1. Collective Effort Model (CEM) (Karau and Williams; 1993, 1995)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Social loafing depends on
|
||||
#### 3.1.1. Social loafing depends on
|
||||
|
||||
- How important the person believes his/her contribution is to group success.
|
||||
- How likely that better performance will be recognized and rewarded.
|
||||
- How much the person values group success.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Social loafing will be weakest when
|
||||
#### 3.1.2. Social loafing will be weakest when
|
||||
|
||||
- they expect their coworkers to perform poorly.
|
||||
- individuals work in small rather than big groups.
|
||||
@@ -78,32 +78,32 @@ When an individual’s contribution to a collective activity cannot be evaluated
|
||||
- they work on tasks that are intrinsically interesting.
|
||||
- when they work with respected others, e.g. friends.
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.3.2 Reducing Social Loafing
|
||||
### 3.2. Reducing Social Loafing
|
||||
- Make each person’s contribution identifiable.
|
||||
- Provide rewards for high group productivity.
|
||||
- Make task meaningful, complex, or interesting.
|
||||
- A strong commitment to the ‘team’.
|
||||
- Keep work groups small.
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.3.3 Social compensation
|
||||
### 3.3. Social compensation
|
||||
|
||||
*Occurs when a person expends great effort to compensate for others in the group.*
|
||||
When others are performing inadequately, and the person cares about the quality of the group product.
|
||||
|
||||
### 8.3.4 Other Factors
|
||||
### 3.4. Other Factors
|
||||
|
||||
#### Gender
|
||||
#### 3.4.1. Gender
|
||||
|
||||
- Stronger in men than in women (Karau & Williams, 1993)
|
||||
|
||||
- Women tend to be higher in relational interdependence, i.e. focus on and care about personal relationships
|
||||
|
||||
#### Cultures
|
||||
#### 3.4.2. Cultures
|
||||
- Stronger in Western cultures than Asian cultures (Karau & Williams, 1993).
|
||||
- Social loafing has been found in India, Thailand, Japan, Malaysia and China.
|
||||
- People in collectivistic culture value group achievement more.
|
||||
|
||||
## 8.4 Deindividuation
|
||||
## 4. Deindividuation
|
||||
|
||||
*The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can’t be identified (such as when they are in crowd).*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
|
||||
# 12. Chinese Social Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.1 Lian Vs. Mianzi
|
||||
## 1. Lian Vs. Mianzi
|
||||
|
||||
Hu (1944) proposed that there are 2 basic categories of face in Chinese culture:
|
||||
Lian (臉) and mianzi (面子).
|
||||
|
||||
### 12.1.1 Lian
|
||||
### 1.1. Lian
|
||||
|
||||
*An individual’s lian can be preserved by faithful compliance with ritual or social norms.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Both a social sanction for enforcing moral standards and an internalized sanctio
|
||||
- Bu yao lian (‘doesn’t want face’; 不要臉) means that he or she is nasty, shameless, and immoral: A great insult to his or her moral character.
|
||||
- Diulian (shame; 丟臉) is a result of wrong-doing regardless of the presence of an audience.
|
||||
|
||||
### 12.1.2 Mianzi
|
||||
### 1.2. Mianzi
|
||||
|
||||
*Mianzi stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized in a particular place*
|
||||
*Similar to the western face concept.*
|
||||
@@ -28,17 +28,17 @@ Similar to the western face concept: Chinese – with hierarchical structure of
|
||||
- A reputation achieved through success, e.g. career or interpersonal relationship.
|
||||
- Lian has no relationship with successFace behavior
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.2 Enhancing one’s own face
|
||||
## 2. Enhancing one’s own face
|
||||
|
||||
Knowing what kind of qualities are most appreciated by others in one’s social network, a person may deliberately do face-work to enhance one’s social or positional status by showing off these most appreciated qualities.
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.3 Enhancing others’ face
|
||||
## 3. Enhancing others’ face
|
||||
|
||||
A person may adopt some tactics of ingratiation to enhance the resource allocators’s face so that the latter might reciprocate by allocating the resources in a way to benefits the ingratiator.
|
||||
|
||||
Tactics include presenting compliments of sufficient credibility, conforming with his/her opinions and behavior, giving gifts or doing other pleasant and rewarding things for others
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.4 Losing one’s own face
|
||||
## 4. Losing one’s own face
|
||||
|
||||
The losing of face may bring serious consequences for an individual, especially when he/she loses the so-called ‘moral face’.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ The losing of face may bring serious consequences for an individual, especially
|
||||
|
||||
Losing face for someone or some group with whom he/she is closely connected
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.5 Hurting others’ face
|
||||
## 5. Hurting others’ face
|
||||
|
||||
When a man wants to ask for a favor from a resource allocator of some prestige, he first assesses his position relative to the allocator and the likelihood that he may be successful.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ If the request is accepted, then the allocator ‘gave him mianzi’ and his fac
|
||||
|
||||
If the request is rejected, the allocator does not give him ‘mianzi’, which then reflects badly on his own mianzi and blame the allocator, especially when the allocator occupies a lower social status.
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.6 Saving one’s own face
|
||||
## 6. Saving one’s own face
|
||||
|
||||
Losing face may cause embarrassment, shame or shyness
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ Possible reactions:
|
||||
- Retaliatory actions: express dissatisfaction in a subtle and indirect way
|
||||
- Self-defensive reactions: devalue the opponent, deemphasize the seriousness of the face-losing event and pretend nothing happened
|
||||
|
||||
## 12.7 Saving others’ face
|
||||
## 7. Saving others’ face
|
||||
|
||||
Bond and Lee (1978) studied the face-saving behavior of 100 CUHK students.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
|
||||
# 1. Introduction & Research Methods
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG 2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
What is social psychology:
|
||||
The **scientific** study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.
|
||||
|
||||
## 1.1 Social Psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals
|
||||
## 1. Social Psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals
|
||||
|
||||
Four core values to be scientific:
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ Four core values to be scientific:
|
||||
- Skepticism – accept findings as accurate after verifying repeatedly
|
||||
- Open-mindedness – to change the viewpoints when evidence shows the inaccuracy of the viewpoints
|
||||
|
||||
## 1.2 Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
|
||||
## 2. Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
|
||||
|
||||
We are not isolated from social and cultural influences.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ To understand the factors that shape the actions and thoughts of individuals in
|
||||
|
||||
E.g. love, violence, helping…
|
||||
|
||||
## 1.3 Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
|
||||
## 3. Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.3.1 The actions and characteristics of other people
|
||||
### 3.1. The actions and characteristics of other people
|
||||
|
||||
**Our emotions, thoughts and behavior are affected by others.**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ When others are watching us (e.g. an attractive person looked at you at the cant
|
||||
|
||||
Others’ physical characteristics (e.g. tall/short; fat/slim; young/old; attractive/less attractive…)
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.3.2 Cognitive processes
|
||||
### 3.2. Cognitive processes
|
||||
|
||||
**Engage in social cognition – to think about other persons.**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -41,35 +41,35 @@ Others’ physical characteristics (e.g. tall/short; fat/slim; young/old; attrac
|
||||
e.g. You are going to have lunch with your friend and she is late for an hour, how will you react when she says…
|
||||
She has totally forgotten? She had diarrhoea?
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.3.3 Environmental variables
|
||||
### 3.3. Environmental variables
|
||||
|
||||
**The physical environment influences our feelings, thoughts and behaviors.**
|
||||
|
||||
E.g. Do people become more aggressive and irritable when the weather is hot? Does exposure to a pleasant smell in the air make people happier?
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.3.4 Biological factors
|
||||
### 3.4. Biological factors
|
||||
|
||||
**Comes from the Evolutionary Psychology – we now possess a large number of evolved psychological mechanisms that help us to deal with important problems relating to survival.**
|
||||
|
||||
E.g. attractiveness (women rate sense of humor very high on the list of desirable characteristics in potential romantic partners)
|
||||
= Signal high intelligence, more attractive, interest in forming new relationships
|
||||
|
||||
## 1.4 Social Psychology aims to search for basic principles under the ever-changing social world
|
||||
## 4. Social Psychology aims to search for basic principles under the ever-changing social world
|
||||
|
||||
- Develop basic principles that are accurate regardless of when and where they applied or tested.
|
||||
- Social psychologists also recognize that cultures differ greatly and the social work keeps on changing (e.g. independence or interdependence)
|
||||
- E.g. Would the determinants of attraction change after the advancement of technology, e.g. online dating? Social media?
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.4.1 Research as a route to increase knowledge
|
||||
### 4.1. Research as a route to increase knowledge
|
||||
|
||||
#### Systematic observation
|
||||
#### 4.1.1. Systematic observation
|
||||
|
||||
Mainly by *naturalistic observation*.
|
||||
|
||||
The researcher just simply record what is happening in each context.
|
||||
He/she would make no attempt to change the behavior of the people being observed
|
||||
|
||||
#### Survey Method
|
||||
#### 4.1.2. Survey Method
|
||||
|
||||
- Advantages:
|
||||
- Easy to gather information
|
||||
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ He/she would make no attempt to change the behavior of the people being observed
|
||||
- Disadvantages:
|
||||
- Social desirability
|
||||
|
||||
#### Correlation
|
||||
#### 4.1.3. Correlation
|
||||
|
||||
- Search for *relationships* between two events
|
||||
- Make *predictions*
|
||||
@@ -100,9 +100,9 @@ Researchers vary the independent variable (e.g., the number of bystanders people
|
||||
- Internal validity – Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable
|
||||
- External validity – The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
|
||||
|
||||
### 1.4.2 Research vs. human rights
|
||||
### 4.2. Research vs. human rights
|
||||
|
||||
#### Informed consent
|
||||
#### 4.2.1. Informed consent
|
||||
|
||||
**The research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ Informed consent should include:
|
||||
6. A statement of any benefits or compensation provided to the subjects and the number of subjects involved
|
||||
7. An offer to provide a summary of findings
|
||||
|
||||
#### Debriefing
|
||||
#### 4.2.2. Debriefing
|
||||
|
||||
1. Provide necessary information (e.g. yourselves, nature, hypotheses) about the experiment.
|
||||
2. Clear any misunderstanding or misconceptions
|
||||
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
|
||||
# 6. Persuasion
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
|
||||
## 6.1 What is persuasion?
|
||||
## 1. What is persuasion?
|
||||
|
||||
Effect to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ A symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change
|
||||
|
||||
The process by which a message induces a change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours (Myers, 2005).
|
||||
|
||||
## 6.2 Cognitive Theory of Persuation
|
||||
## 2. Cognitive Theory of Persuation
|
||||
|
||||
*Elaboration LIkeihood Model (“ELM”) by Petty, R. E. & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986).*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -22,23 +22,23 @@ People can be simple as an information-processor or detailed, deep thinkers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Systematic processing (central route to persuasion)
|
||||
### 2.1. Systematic processing (central route to persuasion)
|
||||
|
||||
- The case in which people have the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented
|
||||
- Involves considerable cognitive elaboration
|
||||
- Requires effort and absorbs much of our information-processing capacity
|
||||
|
||||
### Heuristic processing (peripheral route to persuasion)
|
||||
### 2.2. Heuristic processing (peripheral route to persuasion)
|
||||
|
||||
- The case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues
|
||||
- Examine the message quickly and use of mental shortcuts
|
||||
- Requires less effort
|
||||
|
||||
## 6.3 Elements of persuasion
|
||||
## 3. Elements of persuasion
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.3.1 The communicator (Who says)
|
||||
### 3.1. The communicator (Who says)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Credibility
|
||||
#### 3.1.1. Credibility
|
||||
|
||||
*A credible communicator is perceived as both an expert and trustworthy.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ People can be simple as an information-processor or detailed, deep thinkers.
|
||||
- **Perceived trustworthiness**
|
||||
Believing that the communicator is not trying to persuade (Hatfield & Festinger, 1962) – If you want to persuade someone, start with information, not arguments
|
||||
|
||||
#### Attractiveness
|
||||
#### 3.1.2. Attractiveness
|
||||
|
||||
- **Attractiveness**
|
||||
Emotional arguments are often more influential when they come from people we consider beautiful.
|
||||
@@ -55,9 +55,9 @@ People can be simple as an information-processor or detailed, deep thinkers.
|
||||
- **Similarity**
|
||||
We tend to like people who are like us.
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.3.2 The message content (What is said)
|
||||
### 3.2. The message content (What is said)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Reason vs Emotion
|
||||
#### 3.2.1. Reason vs Emotion
|
||||
*Well-educated or analytical audience: rational appeals (Cacioppo et al., 1983, 1996).*
|
||||
|
||||
- **The effect of good feelings**: more persuasive when there is an association between the messages and good feelings.
|
||||
@@ -68,16 +68,16 @@ People can be simple as an information-processor or detailed, deep thinkers.
|
||||
*The effect of arousing fear– messages that evoke negative emotions in the recipient.*
|
||||
Fear appeals – a persuasive communication that tries to scare people into changing attitudes by conjuring up negative consequences that will occur if they do not comply with the message recommendations (the more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond).
|
||||
|
||||
#### Discrepancy
|
||||
#### 3.2.2. Discrepancy
|
||||
*Cognitive dissonance – internal conflict between the attitudes and the behaviours that prompts people to change their attitudes/opinions.*
|
||||
|
||||
#### One-sided vs two-sided appeals
|
||||
#### 3.2.3. One-sided vs two-sided appeals
|
||||
*The message looks fairer and more disarming if it recognizes the opposition’s arguments (Werner, 2002).*
|
||||
|
||||
‘No aluminium cans please!’ vs ‘It may be inconvenient, but it is important!!!!!!’
|
||||
Which do you think is more persuasive?
|
||||
|
||||
#### Primacy vs Recency
|
||||
#### 3.2.4. Primacy vs Recency
|
||||
|
||||
- Primacy effect – information presented first usually has the most influence
|
||||
- Recency effect – information presented last sometimes has the most influence but less common than the primacy effect
|
||||
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ One placed after the other on a white clipboard.
|
||||
62% chose the first-presented choice.
|
||||
“First is best.”
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.3.3 The channel of communication (How is it said)
|
||||
### 3.3. The channel of communication (How is it said)
|
||||
|
||||
*Persuasive speaker must deliver a message that can get attention, understandable, convincing, memorable and compelling.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -96,31 +96,31 @@ The major influence on us is not the media but our CONTACT with people.
|
||||
Media influence: Two-step flow – the process by which media influence occurs through opinion leaders (experts), who in turn influence others.
|
||||
e.g. a father wants to evaluate a new mobile phone, he may consult his son, who get many ideas from what they read online.
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.3.4 The audience (To whom is it said)
|
||||
### 3.4. The audience (To whom is it said)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Age
|
||||
#### 3.4.1. Age
|
||||
|
||||
Generational explanation – the attitudes the elderly adopted when they were young persists and this makes a big difference from those being adopted by young people nowadays.
|
||||
|
||||
#### The cognition of the audiences
|
||||
#### 3.4.2. The cognition of the audiences
|
||||
|
||||
- Forewarned is forearmed – prepare the counterarguments if the audience is forewarned (e.g. mock interview/examination).
|
||||
- Distraction – distracting the attention can stop counterarguing.
|
||||
- Uninvolved audiences use peripheral cues.
|
||||
|
||||
## 6.4 How to resist persuasion?
|
||||
## 4. How to resist persuasion?
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.4.1 Strengthening personal commitment - Reactance
|
||||
### 4.1. Strengthening personal commitment - Reactance
|
||||
*A negative reaction to an influence attempt that threatens personal freedom .
|
||||
|
||||
We will feel annoyed and resentful when confronted with a persistent influence attempt.
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.4.2 Forewarning
|
||||
### 4.2. Forewarning
|
||||
*Advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion.
|
||||
|
||||
As it activates several cognitive processes that are important for persuasion.
|
||||
|
||||
### 6.4.3 Selective avoidance
|
||||
### 4.3. Selective avoidance
|
||||
*People’s tendency to filter out information that is inconsistent with their pre-existing attitudes.*
|
||||
|
||||
Direct our attention away from information that challenges our existing attitudes.
|
||||
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
|
||||
# 5. Prejudice
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
## 1. Stereotype, prejudice and discrimination
|
||||
|
||||
## 5.1 Stereotype, prejudice and discrimination
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.1.1 Examples of Prejudice
|
||||
### 1.1. Examples of Prejudice
|
||||
|
||||
- **Sex: Also known as sexism**.
|
||||
Women face discrimination in work settings, higher education and government (e.g. Fisher, 1992).
|
||||
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
|
||||
- **Physical attractiveness: Also known as appearance prejudice.**
|
||||
Physically attractive people receive more lenient punishments (Mazzella & Feingold, 1994).
|
||||
|
||||
## 5.2 Components of Group Antagonism
|
||||
## 2. Components of Group Antagonism
|
||||
|
||||
- Stereotypes (cognitive)
|
||||
A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people
|
||||
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
|
||||
- Discrimination (behavioral)
|
||||
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.2.1 Stereotypes
|
||||
### 2.1. Stereotypes
|
||||
|
||||
*A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@
|
||||
Information relevant to an activated stereotype is often processed more quickly, and remembered better, than information unrelated to it (Macrae et al., 1997).
|
||||
Inconsistent information may be refuted or changed in subtle ways to make it consistent (Kunda & Oleson, 1995)
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.2.2 Prejudice
|
||||
### 2.2. Prejudice
|
||||
|
||||
*The evaluation (usually negative) of a group or an individual based mainly on group membership.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ e.g. those who are prejudiced against gay people are likely to have a stereotype
|
||||
|
||||
We see only the information that confirms how right we are about “those people” and dismiss information that might require us to change our minds
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.2.3 Discrimination
|
||||
### 2.3. Discrimination
|
||||
|
||||
*Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his/her membership in that group.*
|
||||
Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, or religious prejudice have decreased somewhat in recent years in the US and many other countries.
|
||||
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, or religious prejudice ha
|
||||
In fact, “old-fashioned” racism, for instance, is simply replaced by modern racism (more subtle) (Swim et al., 1995).
|
||||
Involves concealing prejudice from others in public settings, but expressed bigoted attitudes when it is safe to do so.
|
||||
|
||||
## 5.3 The causes of prejudice
|
||||
## 3. The causes of prejudice
|
||||
|
||||
Perceived threat to a valued group
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ Perceived threat to a valued group
|
||||
- Realistic group conflict theory
|
||||
- Social identity theory – Feeling Superior to Others
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.3.1 Intergroup competition
|
||||
### 3.1. Intergroup competition
|
||||
|
||||
**Realistic group conflict theory:**
|
||||
*The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination (Jackson, 1993).*
|
||||
@@ -90,17 +90,17 @@ Perceived threat to a valued group
|
||||
- Competition intensifies conflict (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood & Sherif, 1961).
|
||||
- The competition may finally develop into full scale, emotion-laden prejudice.
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.3.2 Social identity theory
|
||||
### 3.2. Social identity theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
#### Assumptions of Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1982)
|
||||
#### 3.2.1. Assumptions of Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1982)
|
||||
|
||||
1. **We categorize:** We find it useful to put people, ourselves included, into categories.
|
||||
2. **We identify:** We associate ourselves with certain groups (ingroups) and gain self-esteem by doing so.
|
||||
3. **We compare:** we contrast our groups with other groups (outgroups), with a favorable bias toward our own group.
|
||||
|
||||
#### The act of categorization can group people as “us” (an ingroup) or “them” (an outgroup)
|
||||
#### 3.2.2. The act of categorization can group people as “us” (an ingroup) or “them” (an outgroup)
|
||||
|
||||
The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his/her identification with a nation, religious or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -120,24 +120,24 @@ The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his/her identification wi
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.3.3 Social learning
|
||||
### 3.3. Social learning
|
||||
|
||||
*We acquire negative attitudes towards other social groups by hearing such views expressed by significant others.*
|
||||
There are directly rewards for adopting the same views (e.g. love, approval).
|
||||
|
||||
#### Socialization
|
||||
#### 3.3.1. Socialization
|
||||
*A process by which children learn the conventional social norms from family
|
||||
Our families and cultures pass on all kinds of information.* (e.g. finding mates, whom to trust and dislike).
|
||||
|
||||
> Swedish teens display increasing anti-immigrant prejudice over time if their parents voice such prejudice (Miklikowska, 2017).
|
||||
> Parental attitudes assessed shortly after their babies are born predict their children attitudes 17 years later (Fraley et al., 2012).
|
||||
|
||||
#### The Media
|
||||
#### 3.3.2. The Media
|
||||
|
||||
*Media coverage reflects and reinforces stereotypes.*
|
||||
e.g. Gilens (1999) found that the media presents an inaccurate picture of people on welfare, showing them as much more likely to be black and unemployed than is the case in reality
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.3.4 Cognitive Bases of Prejudice
|
||||
### 3.4. Cognitive Bases of Prejudice
|
||||
|
||||
Cognitive biases occur because we need to simplify a complex world. These biases can produce stereotypes and prejudice even in the absence of socialization or competition between groups.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -148,15 +148,15 @@ Cognitive biases occur because we need to simplify a complex world. These biases
|
||||
- Social norms provide a basis for categorization based on other attributes.
|
||||
e.g. social class
|
||||
|
||||
## 5.4 Reducing prejudice
|
||||
### 5.4.1 Socialization
|
||||
## 4. Reducing prejudice
|
||||
### 4.1. Socialization
|
||||
|
||||
*Much change is happening spontaneously as target groups change and levels of education rise.*
|
||||
|
||||
More education people have, the less prejudiced they are likely to be (esp. for people with college degrees) (Schuman et al., 1997).
|
||||
Simple media persuasion seems not effective (see Hovland, 1959)
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.4.2 Intergroup contact
|
||||
### 4.2. Intergroup contact
|
||||
|
||||
*Contact hypothesis: The view that social interactions between social groups would reduce prejudice.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -179,16 +179,16 @@ e.g. merely putting students of different groups together in a class does not wo
|
||||
However, many efforts at intergroup contact do not meet the conditions.
|
||||
Even in desegregated schools, children tend to associate more with their own race (Schofield, 1978)
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.4.3 Recategorization
|
||||
### 4.3. Recategorization
|
||||
|
||||
*A shift in the boundary between the in-group (us) and some out-group (them).*
|
||||
|
||||
Gaertner et al. (1990) suggest helping people to experience working together cooperatively can induce people belonging to different groups to perceive each other as members of a single group.
|
||||
e.g., your identity changes from Psychology major students in CIE to HKBU student.
|
||||
|
||||
## 5.5 The case of HK
|
||||
## 5. The case of HK
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.5.1 Minority Groups in HK
|
||||
### 5.1. Minority Groups in HK
|
||||
|
||||
- Mentally retarded
|
||||
Chronically ill patients
|
||||
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ e.g., your identity changes from Psychology major students in CIE to HKBU studen
|
||||
- Indian/Pakistani/Filipino
|
||||
- Sex workers & HIV infected
|
||||
|
||||
### 5.5.2 Work of EOC in Hong Kong
|
||||
### 5.2. Work of EOC in Hong Kong
|
||||
|
||||
The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) is a statutory body set up in 1996 to implement the Sex Discrimination Ordinance (SDO) 《性別歧視條例》, the Disability Discrimination Ordinance (DDO) 《殘疾歧視條例》and the Family Status Discrimination Ordinance (FSDO) 《家庭崗位歧視條例》
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
|
||||
# 3. Social Cognition
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
**Social cognition:**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
|
||||
Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless (Heuristics & Schemas).
|
||||
Low-effort thinking (vs. High-effort thinking: thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful)
|
||||
|
||||
## 3.1 Heuristics (mental shortcuts)
|
||||
## 1. Heuristics (mental shortcuts)
|
||||
|
||||
*People use to make judgements quickly and efficiently.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ We have too much information, Heuristics let us do more, with less effort.
|
||||
- Anchoring and adjustment
|
||||
- Status quo
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.1.1 Representativeness heuristic
|
||||
### 1.1. Representativeness heuristic
|
||||
|
||||
*A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ The judgments are often accurate because we follow the group norms in behavior a
|
||||
- *Base rates* – the frequency with a given event/patterns occur in the total population
|
||||
- *Discounting other important information*
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.1.2 Availability heuristic
|
||||
### 1.2. Availability heuristic
|
||||
|
||||
*A strategy to make judgments based on how *easily* specific kinds of information brought to our mind.*
|
||||
The more easily recall something (something dramatic), the greater its impact on subsequent judgments or decisions.
|
||||
@@ -56,18 +56,18 @@ Judgements about objects that we are personally familiar with (e.g. consumer bra
|
||||
overestimate the probability of events that are dramatic but rare.
|
||||
E.g. car accidents vs flight accidents
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.1.3 Anchoring and adjustment
|
||||
### 1.3. Anchoring and adjustment
|
||||
|
||||
*The tendency to use something we know (anchor) as a starting point to which we then make adjustments to deal with uncertainty.*
|
||||
|
||||
- We use particular standard as a starting point (anchor), then try to determine if we should guess higher or lower than the starting point (adjustment) (DeLamater & Myers, 2011)
|
||||
- We use ‘self’ as the anchor
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.1.4 Problem: Negative Bias
|
||||
### 1.4. Problem: Negative Bias
|
||||
|
||||
*The fact that we show greater sensitivity and likely to remember the negative information than to positive information.*
|
||||
|
||||
## 3.2 Schemas
|
||||
## 2. Schemas
|
||||
|
||||
*Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about and remember.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ E.g. car accidents vs flight accidents
|
||||
- Help us organize and make sense of the world and to fill in the gaps of our knowledge.
|
||||
- Particularly useful in confusing or ambiguous situations.
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.2.1 Advantages of Schematic Processing
|
||||
### 2.1. Advantages of Schematic Processing
|
||||
|
||||
Schemas aid and speed up information processing:
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ Schemas aid and speed up information processing:
|
||||
- Perceive and label the new information which is consistent or inconsistent with the schemas
|
||||
- Reduce ambiguous elements in the situation
|
||||
|
||||
### 3.2.2 Limitations of Schematic Processing
|
||||
### 2.2. Limitations of Schematic Processing
|
||||
|
||||
People fill in gaps with information that does not belong but is schema-consistent.
|
||||
People may ignore information which does belong but is schema-inconsistent
|
||||
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ Selective attention.
|
||||
|
||||
**Halo effect (Thorndike, 1920):** A general bias in which a favorable or unfavorable general impression of a person affects our inferences and future expectations about that person.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Confirmation bias (confirmatory hypothesis testing)
|
||||
#### 2.2.1. Confirmation bias (confirmatory hypothesis testing)
|
||||
|
||||
*A tendency to search for information that confirms our original hypotheses and beliefs.*
|
||||
People are overly accepting of information that fits a schema.
|
||||
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ People tended to select questions from a provided list that confirmed the hypoth
|
||||
|
||||
Holding an opposite hypothesis or having a need for valid information reduces the degree to which people selectively confirm hypotheses.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Self-fulfilling prophecies
|
||||
#### 2.2.2. Self-fulfilling prophecies
|
||||
|
||||
*People have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people’s original expectations, making the expectations come true.*
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -126,13 +126,13 @@ Snyder, Tanke, and Berscheid (1977) gave male students a photograph of either an
|
||||
In fact, the photos were fake and were randomly assigned to women regardless of their true looks.
|
||||
Men who believed they were talking to a more attractive woman behaved more warmly. The woman in turn seemed more sociable, friendly, and likeable.
|
||||
|
||||
#### Belief perseverance (perseverance effect)
|
||||
#### 2.2.3. Belief perseverance (perseverance effect)
|
||||
|
||||
*Schemas remain unchanged even in face of contradictory information (e.g. Kunda & Oleson, 1995).*
|
||||
e.g. 20 years ago, we found it hard to believe a priest or a teacher would molest children.
|
||||
It is very difficult to demolish a belief once we have established a rationale of the belief.
|
||||
|
||||
## 4. Affect and cognition
|
||||
## 3. Affect and cognition
|
||||
|
||||
*When we are in good mood, we tend to perceive everything in positive manner (people, the world, ideas…). *
|
||||
Mood congruence effects,Mood dependent memory.
|
||||
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
|
||||
# 2. Social perception
|
||||
|
||||
> PSYG 2504 Social Psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
*The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.*
|
||||
|
||||
## 2.1 Nonverbal communication
|
||||
## 1. Nonverbal communication
|
||||
|
||||
- The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words, including via facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, movement, touch and gaze.
|
||||
- It provides abundant information about others
|
||||
@@ -14,9 +14,9 @@
|
||||
- **The visible channel** – facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, posture, and touching
|
||||
- **Paralanguage** – voice pitch, loudness, rhythm, inflection, and hesitations to convey information
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.1.1 Channels of nonverbal communication
|
||||
### 1.1. Channels of nonverbal communication
|
||||
|
||||
#### Facial expression
|
||||
#### 1.1.1. Facial expression
|
||||
|
||||
**Changes in the face that can occur as an automatic response to an internal state or as a voluntary response to a social situations.**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
|
||||
- Can we accurately recognize others’ facial expressions?
|
||||
Depends on people’s intentional focus on showing their own emotions in their facial expressions
|
||||
|
||||
#### Eye contact
|
||||
#### 1.1.2. Eye contact
|
||||
|
||||
- Gaze: looking at another person’s eyes
|
||||
- High level of gazing from another person = interest or friendliness (Kleinke, 1986);
|
||||
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@
|
||||
- Bushman (1998) advised drivers to avoid eye contact with aggressive motorists
|
||||
Assault may result because they may perceive aggressiveness
|
||||
|
||||
#### Body language/ Gestures
|
||||
#### 1.1.3. Body language/ Gestures
|
||||
|
||||
- Our emotions are often reflected in the position, posture and movement of our bodies
|
||||
- Large no. of movements (esp. touching, rubbing, scratching) = emotional arousal
|
||||
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@
|
||||
- Emblems: nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture, usually having direct verbal translations, e.g. OK sign
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
#### Touching
|
||||
#### 1.1.4. Touching
|
||||
|
||||
- The appropriateness of touching depends on the situation.
|
||||
- Depends on who? Nature of the touching? The context?
|
||||
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
|
||||
- Handshake is acceptable in many cultures.
|
||||
Firmer and longer handshakes = higher extraversion and openness to experience
|
||||
|
||||
#### Distance
|
||||
#### 1.1.5. Distance
|
||||
|
||||
Standing close is a sign of friendship or interest.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -62,29 +62,29 @@ Standing close is a sign of friendship or interest.
|
||||
- People who want to be friendly would choose smaller distances
|
||||
- People who are sexually attracted to each other stand close (Allgeier & Byrne, 1973)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Paralanguage
|
||||
#### 1.1.6. Paralanguage
|
||||
|
||||
- Contains many emotional meanings (Banse & Scherer, 1996)
|
||||
- Tone (an attitude/feeling conveyed through sound)
|
||||
- Pitch (highness or loudness of sound)
|
||||
- Sounds that occurred during speech (e.g. laughing, crying) and facial expressions were more accurate guides to the emotions underlying people’s statements than the spoken words (Hawk, van Kleef, Fischer, & van der Schalk, 2009)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Look of love?
|
||||
#### 1.1.7. Look of love?
|
||||
|
||||
- People in love tend to look at and touch each other differently than those not in love (e.g. holding hands in public, standing very close) (Gonzaga, Kelmer, Keltner, & Smith, 2001)
|
||||
- The stronger the love, the more frequently the nonverbal cues showed (e.g. smiles, head nods, leaning towards one another)
|
||||
- In short, inner feelings of love were reflected in the overt nonverbal actions under both positive and negative conditions
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.1.2 Theories
|
||||
### 1.2. Theories
|
||||
|
||||
#### Facial feedback hypothesis
|
||||
#### 1.2.1. Facial feedback hypothesis
|
||||
|
||||
- Facial feedback hypothesis (Duclos, Laird, Schneider, Sexter, Stern, & Van Lighten, 1989).
|
||||
Our emotions influence our nonverbal cues, the cues themselves influence our internal feelings as well!
|
||||
- The facial expression triggers the emotions or feelings.
|
||||
E.g. You are laughing because you are happy BUT You also feel happier when you are laughing!
|
||||
|
||||
#### Gender differences on nonverbal behavior?
|
||||
#### 1.2.2. Gender differences on nonverbal behavior?
|
||||
|
||||
Girls and women tend to be more expressive, more involved in their interpersonal interactions, and more open in the expression of emotion (DePaulo, 1992)
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ Girls and women tend to be more expressive, more involved in their interpersonal
|
||||
- Better at communicating happiness; Men at communicating anger (Coats & Feldman, 1996)
|
||||
- More accurate interpreting the nonverbal cues than men (Hall, 1978)
|
||||
|
||||
#### Deception
|
||||
#### 1.2.3. Deception
|
||||
|
||||
**Facial expressions are not very helpful in helping people to detect deception (Ekman & Friesen, 1974).**
|
||||
How to detect? NONVERBAL LEAKAGE
|
||||
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ How to detect? NONVERBAL LEAKAGE
|
||||
|
||||
Deception leads to negative social relations
|
||||
|
||||
## 2.2 Attribution
|
||||
## 2. Attribution
|
||||
|
||||
**A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.**
|
||||
E.g. Why has a father just yelled at his daughter?
|
||||
@@ -117,9 +117,9 @@ E.g. Why has a father just yelled at his daughter?
|
||||
- **Internal attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality (e.g. father is impatient)
|
||||
- **External attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in, with the assumption that most people would respond the same way in that situation (e.g. his daughter has just stepped into the street without looking?)
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.2.1 Theories of Attribution
|
||||
### 2.1. Theories of Attribution
|
||||
|
||||
#### Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davis, 1965)
|
||||
#### 2.1.1. Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davis, 1965)
|
||||
|
||||
**Use others’ behavior as a basis for inferring their traits.**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ e.g. If Peter is late to school:
|
||||
Internal attribution: He is lazy; He is not responsible
|
||||
External attribution: He is late because of traffic jam; He is late because of the physical discomfort
|
||||
|
||||
#### Kelly’s covariation theory (1973)
|
||||
#### 2.1.2. Kelly’s covariation theory (1973)
|
||||
|
||||
**The typical social situation has three components:**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -152,9 +152,9 @@ External attribution: He is late because of traffic jam; He is late because of t
|
||||
e.g. You do not scream when you see a cockroaches
|
||||
You scream only when you see a snake, so the distinctiveness is high
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.2.2 Attribution : Sources of errors
|
||||
### 2.2. Attribution : Sources of errors
|
||||
|
||||
#### Fundamental Attribution Error (Jones & Harris, 1967)
|
||||
#### 2.2.1. Fundamental Attribution Error (Jones & Harris, 1967)
|
||||
|
||||
> also called The Correspondence Bias
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -166,14 +166,14 @@ E.g. James is late to school, and we think he is an irresponsible person even th
|
||||
- Culture - stronger in Western cultures (Miyamoto & Kitayama, 2018)
|
||||
- Age – young people in the West explain behaviour in terms of specific factors within the situation, and only later begin to show a tendency to favour personality attributions
|
||||
|
||||
#### The Actor-Observer effect (Malle, 2006)
|
||||
#### 2.2.2. The Actor-Observer effect (Malle, 2006)
|
||||
|
||||
**A tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes but others’ behavior to dispositional causes.**
|
||||
|
||||
e.g. You believe you fail the quiz because the lecturer is too harsh whereas if Josephine fails the same quiz because she is stupid
|
||||
We are well aware of the external/situational factors affecting us but less aware of its effects on others
|
||||
|
||||
#### The Self-Serving Bias (Miller & Ross, 1975)
|
||||
#### 2.2.3. The Self-Serving Bias (Miller & Ross, 1975)
|
||||
|
||||
**A tendency to attribute one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors.**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ We are well aware of the external/situational factors affecting us but less awar
|
||||
E.g. We attain a good grade on the quiz because we are smart; We fail the quiz because Josephine is harsh
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.2.3 Applications of attribution theory
|
||||
### 2.3. Applications of attribution theory
|
||||
|
||||
**Attribution and Depression:**
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -196,21 +196,21 @@ E.g. We attain a good grade on the quiz because we are smart; We fail the quiz
|
||||
- There are some therapies that help to change this attribution pattern,
|
||||
e.g. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
|
||||
|
||||
## 2.3 Impression formation
|
||||
## 3. Impression formation
|
||||
|
||||
The process we form the impression of another person
|
||||
|
||||
- affects how we react to that person later
|
||||
- carries a long-lasting and powerful effects on our perception
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.3.1 First impression
|
||||
### 3.1. First impression
|
||||
|
||||
- Before, Social psychologists concluded that the first impression is formed very quickly but usually inaccurate
|
||||
- But recent research showed that even with ‘thin slices’ of information, the first impression formed is relatively *accurate*
|
||||
**Thin-slicing:** Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior
|
||||
- The formation of the first impression takes a few seconds (!!)
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.3.2 Implicit Personality Theories
|
||||
### 3.2. Implicit Personality Theories
|
||||
|
||||
- The beliefs about which characteristics would go together
|
||||
- When a person possesses some traits, he also possesses others as well
|
||||
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ The process we form the impression of another person
|
||||
Last born – most creative, emotional, disobedient
|
||||
Only – most disagreeable, self-centred
|
||||
|
||||
### 2.3.3 Impression management
|
||||
### 3.3. Impression management
|
||||
|
||||
How can we produce/create a favorable first impression on other people?
|
||||
**Tactics:**
|
||||
Reference in New Issue
Block a user