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M Associate Degree/CCLC2204 Literary Appreciation/Poetry.md BSc(Hons) Psychology/PSYC10460 Applying Psychology to Wicked Problems/PSYC10460 Week 1 Lecture 1.md Social Psychology/Aggression.md Social Psychology/Altruism.md Social Psychology/Attitudes.md Social Psychology/Behaviors in Group.md Social Psychology/Chinese Social Psychology.md Social Psychology/Compliance, Conformity, and Obedience.md Social Psychology/History of Social Psychology.md Social Psychology/Interpersonal Attraction.md Social Psychology/Introduction & Research Methods.md Social Psychology/Persuasion.md Social Psychology/Prejudice.md Social Psychology/Social Cognition.md Social Psychology/Social perception.md, R Associate Degree/CCLC2204 Literary Appreciation/Short Story.md, D BSc(Hons) Psychology/PSYC11411 Individual Differences in Mental Health and Wellbeing/Week 2.md, A Developmental Psychology/Theories of Development.md Research Method/Research Ethics.md Research Method/Research in Developmental Psychology.md
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Associate Degree/CCLC2204 Literary Appreciation/Poetry.md
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# Poetry
---
HKBU: CCLC2204 Literary Appreciation
---
## Poetic Devices
## 1. Poetic Devices
### Figures of Speech
### 1.1. Figures of Speech
A way of saying something other than the ordinary way.
#### Simile
#### 1.1.1. Simile
An **explicit (direct) comparison** between two things using words such as like, as, appears, or seems.
- A sip of Mrs. Cook’s coffee is like a punch in the stomach.
- He is as rich as Bill Gates.
#### Metaphor
#### 1.1.2. Metaphor
Makes an **indirect comparison** between two unlike things without using words such as like or as.
@@ -21,7 +23,7 @@ Makes an **indirect comparison** between two unlike things without using words s
- Life is “a brief candle” – William Shakespeare.
#### Personification
#### 1.1.3. Personification
**Human qualities are given to non-human** things such as an animal, thought, or object.
@@ -29,7 +31,7 @@ Makes an **indirect comparison** between two unlike things without using words s
- The wind whispered her name.
#### Paradox
#### 1.1.4. Paradox
A statement that initially **appears to be self-contradictory but** that, on closer inspection, turns out to **make sense**.
@@ -37,7 +39,7 @@ A statement that initially **appears to be self-contradictory but** that, on clo
- The beginning of an end.
- “All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others”. -- Animal Farm by George Orwell
#### Overstatement (Hyperbole)
#### 1.1.5. Overstatement (Hyperbole)
Use of exaggeration.
@@ -45,13 +47,13 @@ Use of exaggeration.
- Her brain is the size of a pea.
#### Understatement
#### 1.1.6. Understatement
A deliberate playing down of a situation in order to make a point; intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is.
- One nuclear bomb can ruin your day.
#### Irony
#### 1.1.7. Irony
A meaningful gap between expectation and outcome, or when **what is said is different from what is meant**.
@@ -59,7 +61,7 @@ A meaningful gap between expectation and outcome, or when **what is said is diff
- “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”
#### Symbolism
#### 1.1.8. Symbolism
An object represents the subject/idea. It’s the “symbol” of the idea.
@@ -67,7 +69,7 @@ An object represents the subject/idea. It’s the “symbol” of the idea.
- Seasons often represent ages: winter/old age or death; spring/youth; summer/prime of life; fall or autumn/middle age.
- Colours are often linked to emotions: red/passion or anger; blue/happiness or calm; green/jealousy; colors are also used to represent states of being: black/death or evil; white/purity or innocence; red/danger; green/growth.
#### Repetition
#### 1.1.9. Repetition
**Ideas or words** that are **repeated** more than once to **emphasize** and deepen meaning.
@@ -75,7 +77,7 @@ An object represents the subject/idea. It’s the “symbol” of the idea.
And miles to go before I sleep”
-- Robert Frost’s ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’
#### Allusion
#### 1.1.10. Allusion
A reference to another work of fiction, a film, or a piece of art with which the reader is presumably familiar.
@@ -83,9 +85,9 @@ A reference to another work of fiction, a film, or a piece of art with which the
- If I’m not home by midnight, my car might turn into a pumpkin. (Cinderella)
- My math teacher is he who must not be named. (Voldemort from the Harry Potter series)
### Sound Devices
### 1.2. Sound Devices
#### Onomatopoeia
#### 1.2.1. Onomatopoeia
The use of words which **sound like** what they mean
@@ -93,7 +95,7 @@ The use of words which **sound like** what they mean
- the **splashing** of the rain
#### Rhyme
#### 1.2.2. Rhyme
A pattern of words that contains similar sounds at the **end of the line**.
@@ -102,7 +104,7 @@ Baa baa black sheep, have you any **wool**?
One for the master, one for the **dame**,
And one for the little boy who lives down the **lane**.
#### Internal rhyme
#### 1.2.3. Internal rhyme
Rhyming that occurs **within the line** (rather than at the end) .
@@ -110,14 +112,14 @@ Rhyming that occurs **within the line** (rather than at the end) .
- I went to t**own** to buy a g**own**.
#### Assonance
#### 1.2.4. Assonance
**Repetition** of internal **vowel** sounds of words close together in poetry.
- mystery disguised within.
- "Hear the mellow wedding bells" by Edgar Allen Poe.
#### Consonance
#### 1.2.5. Consonance
**Repetitive** sounds produced by **consonants** (non-vowel sounds) within a sentence or phrase.
@@ -129,7 +131,7 @@ Rhyming that occurs **within the line** (rather than at the end) .
- Some ma**mm**als are cla**mm**y.
### Alliteration
### 1.3. Alliteration
**Repetition** of the **initial** consonant sounds.
@@ -142,12 +144,12 @@ In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. I
- **C**oca **C**ola
- **B**est **B**uy
## In-class Poetry
## 2. In-class Poetry
stanza 段落
line 行
### You Fit Into Me
### 2.1. You Fit Into Me
by Margaret Atwood
@@ -157,22 +159,22 @@ by Margaret Atwood
> a fish hook
> an open eye
#### Identity one poetic device and explain its effect.
#### 2.1.1. Identity one poetic device and explain its effect.
Simile – “You fit into me / like a hook into an eye”. The relationship / love between two people is compared to “a hook” and “an eye” with the use of the word “like”.
The relationship is strong and secure. “You” and ‘me” cannot be separated easily.
#### How does the tone change in stanza 2?
#### 2.1.2. How does the tone change in stanza 2?
The rhythm in stanza one is slow and smooth while the rhythm in stanza 2 is fast and short. The tone in stanza 1 suggests the speaker’s satisfaction to the relationship because the speaker uses a complete sentence to describe the relationship. However, the tone is changed to coldness as the speaker uses fragments the describe the change in the relationship.
(the word choice)
The “hook” is changed to “fish hook” which indicates violence and baiting. It shows a contradiction to the positive image created in the first stanza.
#### What do you think the poem is about love?
#### 2.1.3. What do you think the poem is about love?
The poem is about the bitterness of breaking up. The first stanza shows the happiness at the beginning of the relationship that the speaker believes she has found the perfect “fit” in her life as she compares the secure relationship to “hook” and “eye” (evidence) as if they are made for each other.
The tone in stanza 2 suggests the end of happiness. When she uses “fish hook”, she feels trapped. “The open eye” suggests the end of delusion. The happiness is changed to pain and cruelty.
### Some Days
### 2.2. Some Days
> Some days I put the people in their places at the table,// bend their legs at the knees,// if they come with that feature,and fix them into the tiny wooden chairs. (active voice)// All afternoon they face one another,// the man in the brown suit,// the woman in the blue dress, (passive voice)// perfectly motionless, perfectly behaved.
>
@@ -182,68 +184,68 @@ The tone in stanza 2 suggests the end of happiness. When she uses “fish hook
>
> striding around like a vivid god,// your shoulders in the clouds,// or sitting down there amidst the wallpaper,// staring straight ahead with your little plastic face?
#### What’s the situation described in stanza 1 and 2?
#### 2.2.1. What’s the situation described in stanza 1 and 2?
In stanza 1, the speaker is someone who has power to control people to do whatever he wants as he uses “put”, ‘bent”, “fix” to show the way he treats people as a doll. It shows that the speaker can manipulate people’s behaviours.
In stanza 2, the speaker uses “blue” and “brown” to show the colours of the clothes that the people wear to work. The colours suggest the dull and oppressive working environment. The workers are obedient, easily controlled as they are “perfectly motionless”. “Perfectly” is repeatedly used to describe the workers’ behaviours which show that they are the victims of control and manipulation.
#### How is the situation described in stanza 3 different from that in the previous two stanzas?
#### 2.2.2. How is the situation described in stanza 3 different from that in the previous two stanzas?
In the first two stanzas, the speaker has a higher position than other workers in the workplace where he has control over them.
In stanza 3, the speaker becomes one of those being controlled. “But” shows the change of the speaker’s position in the workplace. He is being “lifted up” and “lowered” mean that his power is deprived. The “dollhouse” symbolises the loss of autonomy in the workplace. The speaker has become ordinary as he has been placed into “the dollhouse” and “sit with other”. He has to be well-behaved like other workers.
#### How does the speaker’s tone change in stanza 4?
#### 2.2.3. How does the speaker’s tone change in stanza 4?
In stanza 1-3, the speaker’s tone is very plain and monotonous. The speaker doesn’t use any adjectives to describe his activities. The description is very factual and normal.
“Very funny” in stanza 4 indicates a change in tone. The tone is changed from plain to sarcastic and ironic. The irony refers to how the speaker is being controlled like a doll in the workplace which is not a “funny” thing at all. The tone also becomes confrontational. He questions the reader whether they accept the change of position, to control or to be controlled.
#### What is the significance of the contrast in the last stanza?
#### 2.2.4. What is the significance of the contrast in the last stanza?
“A vivid god” is the initial role that the speaker has when he has power. “Shoulders in the cloud” implies that the speaker is at the top of the hierarchy when he can control other people who are at the lower status than him.
When the speaker is deprived of power, the speaker becomes the one being manipulated like a doll with “little plastic face”. It means that the speaker is trapped in a fixed position where he is not allowed to express his emotions and individuality. He has to be fake in front of others. He has to take commands from those who are of higher status than him/follow rules.
#### What do you think the poem is about (themes)?
#### 2.2.5. What do you think the poem is about (themes)?
- The idea of control
- The uncertainty in life
When you take control of your life, you can express your individuality. When you blindly follow the crowd and let the society control you, you can only be others’ doll.
### Funeral Blues
### 2.3. Funeral Blues
#### What can “Funeral Blues” be classified as? What is the plausible interpretation of the title?
#### 2.3.1. What can “Funeral Blues” be classified as? What is the plausible interpretation of the title?
This poem is an elegy, melancholic poem often spoken at a funeral for a deceased. The speaker has lost his love and expresses his grief.
#### “Stop” (line 1), “cut off (line 1), “Prevent” (line 2), “Silence” (line 3), “Let” (line 5), “Put” (line 7) and “Let” again (line 8) ―what type of verbs are these? What do they all have in common?
#### 2.3.2. “Stop” (line 1), “cut off (line 1), “Prevent” (line 2), “Silence” (line 3), “Let” (line 5), “Put” (line 7) and “Let” again (line 8) ―what type of verbs are these? What do they all have in common?
Imperative verbs. The speaker uses imperative verbs to order the world to be silent
#### What is the poetic device that is used in stanza 2? What effect does it bring?
#### 2.3.3. What is the poetic device that is used in stanza 2? What effect does it bring?
Hyperbole/overstatement.
The words in stanza 2 relate to public announcement of the deceased. The exaggeration indicates the depth of the speaker’s grief. None of the irrational behaviours can be fulfilled.
#### To what is he comparing his dead friend in stanza 3? Can you suggest reasons why he is making those comparisons? What does the speaker speak about in stanza 3?
#### 2.3.4. To what is he comparing his dead friend in stanza 3? Can you suggest reasons why he is making those comparisons? What does the speaker speak about in stanza 3?
Metaphor
“He was my North, my South, my East and West”
The deceased was the speaker’s direction, his everything. This comparison indicates the deceased was all encompassing, showing how impactful the death was for the speaker, affecting his life.
## Reading an Unseen Poetry
## 3. Reading an Unseen Poetry
### STEP 1: Read
### 3.1. STEP 1: Read
- Who is speaking?
- Who is being addressed?
- What is the speaker talking about?
- Where is the poem set?
### STEP 2: Read
### 3.2. STEP 2: Read
- What is the poem about thematically?
- What attitude does the poem express towards this idea?
- What idea is the poem about? Does it seem happy, sad or angry about this idea?
### STEP 3: Annotate
### 3.3. STEP 3: Annotate
- Highlight the important and interesting images in the poem.
- Highlight any other interesting words in the poem.

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# Short Story
---
HKBU: CCLC2204 Literary Appreciation
---
## The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas
## 1. The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas
*by Ursula K. Le Guin*
## A Jury of Her Peers
## 2. A Jury of Her Peers
*by Susan Glaspell*
### Setting
### 2.1. Setting
Setting includes the time, place, and social conditions of the story.
Describe the setting of “A Jury of Her Peers”. Include specific quotes / details, explaining how they contribute to the development of the story.
### Irony
### 2.2. Irony
G.R. Thompson defines irony as "a basic discrepancy between what is expected or apparent and what is actually the case." (the difference between expectation and the reality)
#### Three types of irony
#### 2.2.1. Three types of irony
**Verbal irony:** When something is said that is the opposite of what it meant.
@@ -26,7 +28,7 @@ G.R. Thompson defines irony as "a basic discrepancy between what is expected or
**Dramatic irony:** When the readers know something that other characters don’t know.
#### What’s the “irony” in Glaspell’s “A Jury of Her Peers”?
#### 2.2.2. What’s the “irony” in Glaspell’s “A Jury of Her Peers”?
- “Well, can you beat the women! Held for murder and worrying about her preserves!” (condescending)
- “Oh, well,” said Mrs. Hale’s husband, with good-natured superiority, “women are used to worrying over trifles.”
@@ -40,11 +42,11 @@ G.R. Thompson defines irony as "a basic discrepancy between what is expected or
- Men do not expect to get the clues in the kitchen. They are quick to dismiss the importance of kitchen things that they regard as trifles.
- Ironically, the clues that point to the motive of murder are found by women in the domestic realm of kitchen.
### Characterization
### 2.3. Characterization
Characterization is the process by which the writer reveals the **personality** of a character. Characterization is revealed through *direct* characterization and *indirect* characterization.
#### Direct Characterization
#### 2.3.1. Direct Characterization
Direct Characterization tells the audience what the personality of the character is.
@@ -52,7 +54,7 @@ Direct Characterization tells the audience what the personality of the character
The author is directly telling the audience the personality of these two children. The boy is “patient” and the girl is “quiet.”
#### 5 ways of Indirect Characterization
#### 2.3.2. 5 ways of Indirect Characterization
- Speech
- Thought
@@ -60,13 +62,13 @@ The author is directly telling the audience the personality of these two childre
- Action
- Looks (Appearance)
#### List the characters in “A Jury of Her Peers”
#### 2.3.3. List the characters in “A Jury of Her Peers”
| Female Characters | Male Characters |
| ------------------------------------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------ |
| **1.** Mrs Wright (Minnie Foster)<br />**2.** Mrs Hale<br />**3.** Mrs Peters | **1.** John Wright (strangled to death by a rope)<br />**2.** Mr Hale (finds the dead body)<br />**3.** Mr Peters (the sheriff)<br />**4.** Mr Henderson (the county attorney) |
##### Minnie Foster Wright
##### 2.3.3.1. Minnie Foster Wright
Did you realize that we never meet Minnie? We see her through the setting (think about her kitchen!) and through the eyes of Mrs. Peters and Martha Hale. (What’s her transformation before and after marriage?)
@@ -108,7 +110,7 @@ Mrs Wright represents how women are oppressed in the patriarchal society. Being
The story subtly describes a transformation in the attitudes of Martha Hale and Mrs. Peters. What is this transformation? What gives rise to this change?
##### Mrs. Martha Hale
##### 2.3.3.2. Mrs. Martha Hale
“She hated to see things half done,” -para. 2, p.1
@@ -123,7 +125,7 @@ Mrs Hale shows her solidarity with another woman who has been mistreated as she
##### Mrs. Peters
##### 2.3.3.3. Mrs. Peters
“She was small and thin and didn't have a strong voice.” -para. 5, p.1
@@ -138,7 +140,7 @@ Mrs Peters represents the social status of females at that time. Although Mrs Pe
Analysis 2
Mrs. Peters' character is a representation of a woman's internal conflict between fulfilling her place in society as the sheriff's wife and her own personal voice as a woman. She is seen by other characters as a frail person of small stature. “she was small and thin and didn't have a strong voice”. This shows that she is soft-spoken, with a voice aiming to stay out of the spotlight. She as a person is normally hidden behind the large figure of her husband the sheriff. Unlike the other characters, her first name is never mentioned, meaning even in the description, she seems to exist behind the area of focus. At the beginning of the story, she seems to be uncomfortable with her role as the sheriff’s wife, following society’s expectations, as she states her position as being "married to the law". It is almost as if she is 'owned' by her husband, he has the power to order her around and decide what she does with her life, a strong reflection of the patriarchal society of the time. However, she exhibits a transformation. Having some empathetic connections with the situation of Mrs. Wright, the feelings of pain and anger when remembering the death of her pet cat and the feelings of wanting to get back at the person who killed it, her character shifts, starting with her tone of voice becoming “slow and deep” as supposed to her “flurried” way of speaking. She is no longer fully obedient to her husband's will as sheriff. Despite her being “married to the law”, she decides to help the other women hide evidence against Mrs. Wright to defend her along with Mrs. Hale, bringing her character out from behind her husband’s shadow.
##### The male characters
##### 2.3.3.4. The male characters
Mr. Peters, Mr. Hale, Harry Hale, Mr. Henderson
*John Wright: The victim of murder. Murdered by his wife because of years of cruelty. Do you feel sorry for him?
@@ -151,12 +153,12 @@ Mr. Peters, Mr. Hale, Harry Hale, Mr. Henderson
➢ They all represent the contrast between men’s and women’s spheres at the time. All three of them display a cold lack of understanding of and compassion for the women, allowing them to overlook the plentiful details in the Wright’s house about what led up to the murder. The men exhibit few independent and unique personality traits making them stock characters.
### Conflict
### 2.4. Conflict
### Symbols
### 2.5. Symbols
### Theme
### 2.6. Theme
What is the author saying about life?
### [Literary Theory] Feminism
### 2.7. [Literary Theory] Feminism

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---
Course: PSYC10460 Applying Psychology to Wicked Problems
UoM: PSYC10460 Applying Psychology to Wicked Problems
---
## Welcome to the unit

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---
Course: PSYC11411 Individual Differences in Mental Health and Wellbeing
---
### Unit Structure
### Assessment
First Assignment:
Week 7 Nov. 125h
Descriptive and operational (Qualitative and quantitative) standard to classify, measure and scale disorders.

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---
UoM: PSYC10211 Introduction to Developmental Psychology
---
## 1. Piaget’s Theory
• Four characteristics
1. Constructionist
2. Stage Theory
3. Invariant sequence
4. Universal
• Development involves continuities and
discontinuities
### 1.1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
- Most widely known and influential theorist of child development
- His theory is often labelled constructivist because it depicts children as constructing knowledge
for themselves
- Piagetian children are seen as “little scientists”
- learning many important lessons on their own
- Intrinsically motivated to learn
### 1.2. Concepts
#### 1.2.1. Assimilation
*The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they already understand*
#### 1.2.2. Accommodation
*The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences/theories about the world*
#### 1.2.3. Equilibration
*The process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding*
### 1.3. Discontinuities
In addition to continuous aspects of development, most famous part of Piaget’s theory concerns discontinuities
- Hierarchical stages
- Each stage represents a unified way of understanding one’s experience
- Each transition between stages shows a discontinuous intellectual leap
### 1.4. Central Properties
Qualitative change
- e.g. morality – behaviour vs. intent
- Broad applicability
- Across contexts
- Brief transitions
- Fluctuation between stages
- Invariant sequence
- Everyone goes through the same stages without skipping
### 1.5. 4 Stages
Piaget’s theory is considered a discontinuous view of
development because of his distinct, hierarchical
stages
• Hypothesized that children progress through four
stages of cognitive development, each building on
the previous one
#### 1.5.1. Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years)
- Infants get to know the world through their senses and through their actions.
- Babies are born with many reflexes –grasping, sucking…
- They learn to integrate reflexes in the first few months (grasp + suck)
- Critical cognitive achievement by ~8 months:
- **Object permanence: the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view**
#### 1.5.2. Pre-Operational (2 – 7 years)
• Toddlers and young children start to
rely on internal representations of the
world based on language and mental imagery
• A mix of impressive cognitive acquisitions and equally
impressive limitations
– A notable acquisition is symbolic representation, the use of one object
to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviours possible
– A major limitation is egocentrism, the tendency to perceive the world
solely from one’s own point of view
– Pre-Operational children also make conservation errors, where they
incorrectly believe that merely changing the appearance of objects can
change their quantity
- Symbolic representation
- Egocentrism
- Perceive the world solely from one’s own viewpoint
- Difficulty in taking other people’s spatial perspectives
- According to Piaget, most 4-year-olds can’t do this
- Egocentric conversations
- Centration: focus on one perceptually salient aspect of the stimulus and ignore the other stimulus dimensions
#### 1.5.3. Concrete Operational (7 – 12 years)
*Children begin to reason logically about the world. Thinking systematically remains difficult.*
They can solve conservation problems, but their successful reasoning is largely limited to concrete situations
#### 1.5.4. Formal Operational (12+ years)
### 1.6. Critique of Piaget’s theory
- Although Piaget’s theory remains highly influential, some
weaknesses are now apparent
- Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give
rise to children’s thinking and about the mechanisms that
produce cognitive growth (what are the processes that lead
children to think in a particular way? Piaget doesn’t elaborate…)
- The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more
consistent than it is (but e.g., conservation of number vs. solidquantity)
- Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than
Piaget recognized (they pass easier versions of the tests)
- It understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive
development (what about the role of other people in the child’s
development?)
## 2. Vygotsky’s theory
Piaget considered children to be “little
scientists” trying to understand the
world on their own
• Vygotsky portrayed them as social beings,
intertwined with other people who are eager to
help them gain skills and understanding that
they need to interact successfully with the
world
• Children are viewed as social beings, shaped by and shaping
their cultural contexts. Children develop and learn by
interacting with other members of their society
• It sees development as continuous, rather than abrupt changes
### 2.1. Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
• Sociocultural approach to child
development
• His theory presents children as social
beings, intertwined with other people
who are eager to help them gain skills
and understanding
• His work didn’t reach the attention of
western psychologists until the 1960s
• Subsequent psychologists (such as
Jerome Bruner) extended and developed
Vygotsky’s work by adding
interpretations
### 2.2. Sociocultural approaches
• Focus on the contribution of other people and the
surrounding culture to children’s development
• Emphasize guided participation, a process in which
more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in
ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage
in them at a higher level than they could manage on
their own
• Present interactions as occurring in a broader
sociocultural context that includes cultural tools, the
innumerable products of human ingenuity that
enhance thinking
### 2.3. Mental functions
- Vygotsky distinguished between two levels of mental functioning
- Lower mental functions are regarded as elementary mental abilities closely tied to biological processes that are innate and involuntary, and involve simple perception, memory and responding directly to the environment
- Higher mental functions are regarded as consciously controlled transformations of lower functions that are developed through cultural mediation, and involve voluntary attention, conceptual thought and logical planning
### 2.4. Internalisation
Higher mental functions develop through cultural mediation: the transmission of knowledge through social interactions with other people
- Interactions allow a child to learn the cultural tools (also known as cultural artefacts) of his/her society
- These include language, values, skills and other symbolic systems that represent the shared knowledge of a culture
- Eventually, a child understands a cultural tool and can use it independently (i.e., without the help of social interaction); this process is known as internalisation
### 2.5. Children’s private speech
Vygotsky viewed it as foundation for all higher cognitive processes. Indeed, that language and
thought are integrally related
- Most evident between 4-6 years
- Helps guide behaviour
- Used more when tasks are difficult, after errors, or when confused
- Gradually becomes more silent
- External-to-internal develops with age, but also experience
- Children with learning and behavioural problems use it for longer

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---
UoM: PSYC14441 Psychological Research Skills I
---

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---
UoM: PSYC10211 Introduction to Developmental Psychology
---
## 1. Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation is a research method where researchers observe and record behavior in natural settings without any intervention or manipulation.
**Strengths:**
- **Good ecological validity** - Observations occur in real-world settings
- **Similar to "real-life"** - Behavior is studied in its natural context
- **Can be used to study a range of behavior** - Versatile method applicable to various behaviors and settings
**Limitations:**
- **Hard to identify causal relationships** - With so many variables present, it's difficult to determine which ones specifically influence the behavior of interest
- **Painstaking to administer** - Many behaviors occur only occasionally in everyday environments, reducing researchers' opportunities to study them through this method
## 2. Interviews
**Strengths:**
- **Allows full focus on the individual's behavioral pattern** - Provides in-depth understanding of individual cases
- **Follow-up questions can clarify earlier responses** - Enables deeper exploration and clarification of ambiguous responses
- *Example:*
- Experimenter: When Freddy said "Oh great!", did he mean it was nice or nasty?
- Child: Nasty.
- Experimenter: How do you know that?
**Limitations:**
- **Can be difficult to generalize beyond the individual case** - Findings may not be representative of broader populations
- **Can be difficult to generate a causal argument** - Limited ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships
- **Accuracy concerns** - Potential issues with recall bias, social desirability bias, or misinterpretation of responses
## 3. Experiments
The experimental method involves systematically changing one or more factors (independent variables) to determine whether these changes affect one or more other factors (dependent variables).
**Strengths:**
- **Can directly test relationships between variables** - Allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships
- **Experimental control is relatively easy** - Researchers can manipulate independent variables and control extraneous variables
- **High internal validity** - Ensures that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable
- **Random assignment** - Participants have equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variables
**Limitations:**
- **"Artificial" technique** - May lack ecological validity unless using naturalistic experiments
- **Sometimes not possible due to ethical issues** - Certain manipulations may be unethical to implement
- **Practical constraints** - Some research questions cannot be tested experimentally
- **External validity concerns** - Results may not generalize to other situations and people

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## 1. Definition of Aggression

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## 1. Definitions

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*Our <u>evaluations</u> of any aspects of the social world (including people, objects and ideas).*

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## 1. What is group?

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## 1. Lian Vs. Mianzi

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## 1. Conformity
### 1.1. What is conformity?

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Course: PSYC10711 Introduction to Social Psychology
HKBU: PSYC10711 Introduction to Social Psychology
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## Social Psychology in Crisis

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## 1. Basic concept

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What is social psychology:

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## 1. What is persuasion?

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## 1. Stereotype, prejudice and discrimination

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**Social cognition:**

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Course: PSYG2504 Social psychology
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*The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.*